Table Of ContentSpringer Series in Solid-State Sciences 194
Michael Kneissl
Andreas Knorr
Stephan Reitzenstein
Axel Hoffmann Editors
Semiconductor
Nanophotonics
Materials, Models, and Devices
Springer Series in Solid-State Sciences
Volume 194
Series Editors
Klaus von Klitzing, Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart,
Germany
Roberto Merlin, Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
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Hans-Joachim Queisser, MPI für Festkörperforschung, Stuttgart, Germany
Bernhard Keimer, Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart,
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Armen Gulian, Institute for Quantum Studies, Chapman University, Ashton,
MD, USA
Sven Rogge, Physics, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Michael Kneissl Andreas Knorr
(cid:129) (cid:129)
Stephan Reitzenstein Axel Hoffmann
(cid:129)
Editors
Semiconductor
Nanophotonics
Materials, Models, and Devices
123
Editors
Michael Kneissl Andreas Knorr
Institute of Solid State Physics Institute of Theoretical Physics
Technische UniversitätBerlin Technische UniversitätBerlin
Berlin, Germany Berlin, Germany
StephanReitzenstein AxelHoffmann
Institute of Solid State Physics Institute of Solid State Physics
Technische UniversitätBerlin Technische UniversitätBerlin
Berlin, Germany Berlin, Germany
ISSN 0171-1873 ISSN 2197-4179 (electronic)
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Preface
This book is a compendium of twelve years of research within the collaborative
research centre “Semiconductor Nanophotonics” (CRC 787) which was funded by
the German Research Foundation (DFG) between 2008 and 2019. Although all
CRC787projectscontributedtothebook,itisnotmeanttobemereprojectreport.
InadditiontosummarizingkeyresearchresultsofCRC787,thebookisintendedto
provide a broad overview of the state-of-the-art in the development of semicon-
ductor nanostructures and nanophotonic devices. Consequently, all book chapters
were organized along with key scientific topics with contributions from different
projects interwoven within thematic chapters. It covers epitaxial growth and the
structural characteristics of group III-arsenide and III-nitride semiconductor mate-
rials and nanostructures, the description of fundamental optic, electronic, and
vibronicpropertiesofnanomaterialsaswellasthedesignandrealizationofawide
range of semiconductor nanophotonic devices.
After a brief introduction into basic features and applications of semiconductor
nanophotonicdevicesinChap.1,theChap.2coverstheepitaxialgrowthaswellas
structural, electronic, and optical properties of InAs submonolayer quantum dots
andtheirapplicationinsemiconductoropticalamplifiersandlasers.Thisdiscussion
iscomplementedbyareviewofsite-controllednucleationofInGaAsquantumdots
using the buried stressor growth mode in Chap. 3, which concludes with a
demonstration of single-photon emission from an electrically driven quantum light
source based on a site-controlled quantum dot. The ultrafast carrier and photon
dynamicsinsemiconductorsquantumdotsandnanophotonicdevicesarepresented
in Chap. 4 including the dynamics of optical gain spectra and their application in
optical amplifiers, laser diodes, and multi-section mode-locked laser devices. The
Chap. 5 focuses on the description of a series of advanced nanoscale characteri-
zation tools, encompassing scanning transmission electron microscopy cathodolu-
minescence (STEM-CL), tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS),
microphotoluminescence (µPL), high-resolution X-ray diffraction (XRD), and
cross-sectionalscanningtunnellingmicroscopyandspectroscopy(STM/STS).This
chapter also covers the growth of III-nitride nanowires and nanorods as well as
analysis of their structural and optical properties. It is followed by Chap. 6
v
vi Preface
presenting a microscopic description of light emission from quantum dots and
coupled quantum dot—microcavity structures with respect to their correlated
photon emission statistics. It provides a comprehensive examination of individual
electronic excitations such as excitons, the fundamental Coulomb interaction
betweentheelectronicstatesaswellastheircouplingtootherquasiparticlessuchas
phonons and photons. Furthermore, phenomena such as photon entanglement and
intrabandspectroscopyarereviewed.Buildingonthesefundamentaldescriptionsof
light emission in the quantum regime of light–matter interaction, Chap. 7 presents
basic concepts and numerical methods for the self-consistent modelling and
multi-dimensional simulation of a wide range of semiconductor nanophotonic
devices. Recent advances in device-scale modelling of electrically driven
quantum-dot-based single-photon sources and laser diodes are described creating
newnumerictoolsinthedesignanddevelopmentoffutureintegratedlightsources
and quantum devices. In Chap. 8, deterministic fabrication technologies for
quantum-dot-based sources of single photons and entangled-photon pairs for
applications in optical quantum communication systems are discussed. This
includes the controlled integration of quantum dots into microlenses for enhanced
photon-extraction efficiency, the deterministic fabrication of on-chip integrated
quantum circuits with high functionality as well as cutting-edge quantum-optical
measurements. Building on this, Chap. 9 describes quantum networks based on
single-photon emitters and covers topics like frequency conversion of quantum
light, single-photon storage and quantum repeaters, quantum key distribution pro-
tocols, and the demonstration of a free-space optical link as a test bed for a future
quantum network. Chapter 10 reviews vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser diodes
(VCSELs), another critical nanophotonic device with a wide range of applications
in optical data communication systems, photonic-electronic integrated circuits as
well as sensing and tracking systems. Different VCSEL designs including high
contrastgratingsandVCSELarrays,aswellasvariouskeyfabricationtechnologies
will be discussed, and the performance characteristics of VCSEL devices with
recordultra-highmodulationbandwidthsandenergy efficiencies willbepresented.
Silicon photonic interconnect technologies based on VCSELs emitting at tele- and
datacom wavelengths are examined in Chap. 11. Incoherent, as well as coherent
VCSEL-basedtransmissionlinks,e.g.usingquadraturephase-shiftkeying(QPSK),
arepresentedandanalysed.ThefinaltwochaptersarededicatedtogroupIII-nitride
materials and devices. In Chap. 12, microcavities with InGaN quantum wells or
GaNquantumdotsasactivemediumareexploredasbuildingblocksforelectrically
driven surface-emitting lasers and room-temperature single-photon emitters. Key
componentslikedistributedBraggmirrorsinthevisibletodeepUVspectralrange
aswellasthestructural,electronic,andopticalpropertiesofGaNquantumdotsand
microcavities will be discussed. Finally, Chap. 13 explores the realization of
current-injectionAlGaN-basedlaserdiodesemittinginthedeepultravioletspectral
range. This includes the fabrication of low defect density AlN templates, the
pseudomorphic growth of AlGaN laser heterostructures, advanced fabrication
technologiesforohmiccontactformationandtunnelinjection,andtheinvestigation
of optical gain and losses in deep UV lasers.
Preface vii
We like to express our appreciation to all the co-authors for their important
contributions to the extensive chapters of this book. This book represents a truly
joint effort with a total of 67 co-authors contributing to its content including all
principal investigators of the third phase of CRC 787 as well as a number of
postdoctoral researchers and Ph.D. students. We would also like to thank the
German Research Foundation, in particular, Dr. Michael Mößle and Mrs. Brit
Redöhl,aswellasallthemembersoftheDFGgrantcommitteefortheircontinued
support over this twelve-year journey. Last but not least, a special “Thank you”
goes to Thomas Kure, scientific secretary of the CRC 787, for his dedicated effort
andorganizationalskillsthatwerecrucialinordertobringallcontributionstogether
in a timely, coherent, and smooth manner.
Berlin, Germany Michael Kneissl
Andreas Knorr
Stephan Reitzenstein
Axel Hoffmann
Contents
1 A Short Introduction to Semiconductor Nanophotonics . . . . . . . . . 1
Michael Kneissl
1.1 Nanophotonics and Internet Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Nanophotonics and Cyber Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Economic Impact of Nanophotonics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Semiconductor Nanophotonics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Submonolayer Quantum Dots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
N. Owschimikow, B. Herzog, B. Lingnau, K. Lüdge, A. Lenz,
H. Eisele, M. Dähne, T. Niermann, M. Lehmann, A. Schliwa,
A. Strittmatter and U. W. Pohl
2.1 Carrier Localization in Quantum Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.1 Stranski-Krastanow and Submonolayer Quantum
Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.2 Electronic Structure of InAs Submonolayer
Quantum Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Epitaxy of Submonolayer Quantum Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1 InAs/GaAs Submonolayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.2 InAs/GaAs Submonolayers with Antimony . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Atomic Structure of Submonolayer Quantum Dots . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.1 Methods for Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.2 Analysis of InAs Submonolayer Depositions . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.3 Analysis of InAs Submonolayer Depositions
with Antimony. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4 Optical and Excitonic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.1 InAs Submonolayer Quantum-Dot Ensembles . . . . . . . 34
2.4.2 InAs:Sb Submonolayer Quantum-Dot Ensembles . . . . . 38
ix
x Contents
2.5 Devices Based on Submonolayer Quantum Dots . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.1 Gain and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.2 Amplitude-Phase Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6 Conclusion and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3 Stressor-Induced Site Control of Quantum Dots
for Single-Photon Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
U. W. Pohl, A. Strittmatter, A. Schliwa, M. Lehmann, T. Niermann,
T. Heindel, S. Reitzenstein, M. Kantner, U. Bandelow, T. Koprucki
and H.-J. Wünsche
3.1 Site-Controlled Nucleation of Quantum Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Simulation of Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.1 Model for Strain Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.2 Strain in a Mesa and in a Lamella Structure . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Nucleation Control by a Buried Aperture Stressor . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3.1 Development of a Buried-Stressor Design . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.2 Proof-of-Principle for Stressor-Controlled
Nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.3 Site-Control of Single Quantum Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4 Strain Measurement Applying Electron Holography . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4.1 Reconstruction of the Strain Tensor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4.2 Phase Analysis of Dark-Field Electron Holography . . . 67
3.4.3 Strain Analysis in a Lamella of a GaAs Mesa . . . . . . . 69
3.5 Single-Photon Source Based on Stressor-Induced Site
Control of Quantum Dots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5.1 Development of an Electroluminescence
Quantum-Dot Diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5.2 Operation Characteristics of a Single-Photon
Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5.3 Development of a Resonant-Cavity Structure. . . . . . . . 76
3.6 Realization of an Efficient Current Injection into a Single
Quantum Dot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.6.1 Modeling of the Current Flow in the Device . . . . . . . . 81
3.6.2 Current Confinement in pin and ppn Designs. . . . . . . . 84
3.6.3 Demonstration of a ppn QD Diode with Efficient
Current Confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.7 Conclusion and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
