Table Of ContentDedication
This book is dedicated to the loving memory of my big sister Gera (Hirt)
Jacobs, who taught us all so beautifully how to make a difference in the
world through love. Your spirit and your smile will forever live on in our
hearts.
—Edward R. Hirt
SELF-REGULA TION
AND EGO CONTROL
Edited by
E r. H
dward irt
J J. C
osHua larkson
l J
ilE ia
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on
how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies
and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the
Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by
the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research
and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge
in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-801850-7
For information on all Academic Press publications
visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/
Publisher: Nikki Levy
Acquisition Editor: Emily Ekle
Editorial Project Manager: Timothy Bennett
Production Project Manager: Susan Li
Designer: Matthew Limbert
Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals
List of Contributors
B.C. Ampel University at Albany, Albany, NY, United States
R.F. Baumeister Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
E.T. Berkman University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
J.J. Carnevale Purchase College SUNY, Purchase, NY, United States
D.S. Chester University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
J.J. Clarkson University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
A. Crowell Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
C.R. DeHaan University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
C.N. DeWall University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
P.M. Egan Kendall College, Chicago, IL, United States
J.R. Eyink Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
A. Fishbach The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
Z.L. Francis University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada
M. Friese Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
K. Fujita The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
P.M. Gollwitzer University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany; New York
University, New York, NY, United States
R. Hassey University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
T.F. Heatherton Dartmouth College Hanover, New Hampshire, United States
E.R. Hirt Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
W. Hofmann University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
C.M. Hui Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
M. Inzlicht University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, Canada
L. Jia National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
V. Job University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
L.E. Kahn University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
H.P. Kotabe University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
J.L. Livingston University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States
D.D. Loschelder Leuphana University Lüneburg, Germany
F. Martela University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
E.J. Masicampo Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, NC, United States
D.C. Molden Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
M. Muraven University at Albany, Albany, NY, United States
xiii
xiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
E.E. O’Malley University at Albany, Albany, NY, United States
A.S. Otto Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States
M.D. Robinson North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, United States
R.M. Ryan University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States; Australian
Catholic University, Strathfield, NSW, Australia
B.J. Schmeichel Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
A.A. Scholer University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
M.L. Slepian Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
D.D. Wagner The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
F. Wieber Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland;
University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
B.M. Wilkowski University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, United States
R. Yu National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Preface
The concept of self-regulation and self-control has a rich and fascinat-
ing history. Its roots stem from the classic philosophers of Ancient Greece
(if not earlier), but the concept was not significantly advanced theoreti-
cally until Sigmund Freud at the turn of the 20th century. Freud proposed
his structural model of the psyche (1923–61), a model that detailed three
aspects of the psyche (the id, ego, and superego) and the role of the ego in
regulating the often competing desires of the other two aspects. Decades
later, and in direct contradiction to the abstract theorizing of Freud, BF
Skinner published his classic survey of self-control techniques which
focused heavily on behavior modification methods that seek to control our
actions and environments to eschew our desires (Skinner, 1965). Ground-
breaking work by Walter Mischel and his colleagues (eg, Mischel &
Ebbesen, 1970) using his classic delay of gratification paradigm (the infa-
mous marshmallow studies) offered an important shift in the study of
self-control by exploring the cognitive and developmental processes, as
well as environmental contexts, that dictate success in self-regulation.
However, despite its rich history, diverse theoretical perspectives, and
clear practical relevance, the concept had not received a great deal of
attention within the field of social psychology. Outside of the cybernetic
models of self-regulation posited by Carver and Scheier (1981) and oth-
ers, research within social psychology seemed to place greater emphasis
on the self more broadly. This focus generated a wealth of insights into
domains such as self-esteem, self-identity, and self-motivations, yet little
insight into self-control.
This lack of emphasis changed dramatically in the 1990s when Roy
Baumeister and his colleagues proposed a novel and revolutionary model
of self-control based on a muscle metaphor. In short, our muscles get tired
after prolonged use and need rest to sustain physical performance over
long periods of time. Interestingly, our mental strength or “will” appears
to have similar limitations, getting fatigued after the expenditure of self-
control and resulting in compromised performance on subsequent tasks.
In a classic set of experiments testing this new perspective on self-control,
Baumeister et al. showed that after expending self-control in an initial task
(such as resisting freshly baked chocolate chip cookies in favor of peeled
radishes in a taste test), performance on later tasks requiring self-control
(such as persistence on a challenging set of anagrams) was significantly
reduced (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998). These authors
xv
xvi PREFACE
coined the term “ego depletion” to describe the deleterious consequences
of prior expenditure of self-control on subsequent task performance.
Since that seminal article, work on ego depletion and its effects on
self-control performance has proliferated, with well over 200 empirical
studies documenting that prior exertion of self-control in one context
impairs future efforts at self-control in subsequent contexts (see Hagger,
Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis, 2010, for a review). Indeed, the field
had become enamored with “depletion effects,” with researchers all
over the world elaborating on its implications for outcomes ranging
from aggression and prejudice to overeating, addiction, impulse spend-
ing, decision making, and implicit attitudes. Moreover, the influence
of this depletion work has extended beyond the scientific community
with the publication of the recent New York Time best seller entitled
Willpower: Rediscovering the Greatest Human Strength (Baumeister &
Tierney, 2012).
***
The predominant explanation for these effects has been a “strength
model” which posits that humans have a limited pool of mental resources
which are taxed (or “depleted”) by initial acts of self-control and thus ren-
der individuals unable to devote sufficient resources to subsequent tasks.
This characterization of the ebb and flow of self-regulation resonates well
with our own phenomenological experience, nicely depicted by the cover
photo of the Titan Atlas from Greek mythology embraced in the eternal
struggle to hold the weight of the heavens on his broad shoulders. We are
acutely aware of our limitations, feeling as if we have “hit a wall” or are
unable to muster the necessary mental energy or resources to persist at
demanding tasks.
Yet despite the anecdotal support and intuitive analog to physical exer-
tion, a critical question facing researchers involves the search for the con-
crete nature of these limited resources. In response, an influential paper
by Gailliot et al. (2007) provided evidence for changes in blood glucose
level as the signature marker of depletion and, consequently, offered a
clear physiological basis for depletion effects. However, a number of more
recent papers (Beedie & Lane, 2012; Molden et al., 2012) have challenged
these effects by offering convincing evidence that blood glucose changes
cannot account for many depletion effects. Soon thereafter, as theoretical
and empirical work accumulated that questioned the plausibility of blood
glucose as the metric for mental energy, critics began to question other
assumptions of the strength model. In a short time, a body of research
developed that showed individuals’ motivations, perceptions, lay beliefs,
and psychological state (eg, positive mood, self-affirmation, power) mod-
erate depletion effects and, in doing so, cast concerns over whether the mus-
cle metaphor could adequately account for these emerging complexities.
PREFACE xvii
Indeed, some researchers have interpreted this developing literature as
evidence that depletion effects are not real (Carter & McCullough, 2014)
or merely in our heads (Job, Dweck, & Walton, 2010).
***
At the 2014 SPSP meeting, amidst the rising tide of conflicting findings,
we discussed the possibility of editing a book. The goal, we decided, would
be to invite researchers currently embroiled in this controversy to contribute
in an effort to collaboratively assess the current state of the construct of ego
depletion and, as a consequence, the current state of the field. We believed
the time was right for attempts to integrate these disparate results that have
been appearing in the literature within existing models of self-regulation,
with the hope of offering guidance for future efforts within this intriguing
area of research. Convinced others would see the need for this type of con-
tribution, we approached Elsevier with a book proposal. Elsevier, much to
our appreciation, supported this project from its inception.
One important element of our book proposal was the plan to hold a
conference for chapter contributors prior to the chapter submission dead-
line. The conference was designed to give authors the chance to present to
each other, discuss issues, denote areas of agreement/disagreement, and
identify important key questions and future directions for work in this
area. By holding this conference prior to chapter submission deadlines,
we aimed to achieve a more integrated and cohesive volume. The con-
ference was held at Indiana University on July 27–28, 2015 and included
17 of the 20 chapter author teams. From our vantage point, this confer-
ence was an unequivocal success; it served to provide those in attendance
with an opportunity to hear about each other’s work, receive feedback
on ideas, and establish a greater rapport with scholars from all over the
world conducting research in this area. It is rare in our field that we have
the experience to spend time in such an intense small group environment
with other researchers engaged in a common venture and, based on the
postconference feedback, it is clear this type of gathering needs to happen
again in the near future—if not on a regular basis.
From the outset, we targeted this book as a resource for fellow research-
ers (faculty and graduate students) in social, cognitive, developmental,
and clinical psychology with an interest in self-regulation and self-control.
However, because of the broad implications of these topics for a variety
of disciplines, we believe that professionals interested in the applications
of self-control in areas such as addictions, counseling, eating disorders,
motivational and sensitivity training will also find this book informative,
insightful, and helpful, as the experience of depletion is at the heart of a
number of these maladaptive behaviors.
***
xviii PREFACE
The primary goals of this book are (1) to document and review recent
research in the domain of self-control depletion that call into question
some of the assumptions inherent in the dominant resource or “strength”
model; and (2) to respond to the challenge of recent articles (cf. Inzlicht
& Schmeichel, 2012; Kurzban, Duckworth, Kable, & Myers, 2013) calling
for efforts to broaden the scope of theories of self-control change and to
provide a more thorough and precise account of the existing findings.
To accomplish these goals, we identified and contacted a set of potential
contributors who were actively researching relevant topics related to self-
regulation and depletion. Enthusiasm for this book was high, and nearly
everyone that we asked was willing to contribute a chapter. Clearly, the
timeliness of this project had a lot to do with the buy-in we received from
our fellow self-regulation researchers. For that we are indebted.
Given these goals, the chapters reflect a breadth of topics related to con-
temporary and classic perspectives on self-regulation and ego control. In
an attempt to offer a structure to these diverse topics, we organized the
book thusly. We open with a foundational chapter by Roy Baumeister who
provides the history and background of the resource/strength model.
Building upon that foundation, the book then consists of five sections.
The first section outlines various factors known to moderate depletion
effects. This section begins with a chapter by Loschelder and Friese that
provides a taxonomy of different moderators using dimensions of timing
and leverage point to organize this literature. We follow with a chapter
by Weiber and Gollwitzer, which discusses the effects of implementation
intentions in reducing the pejorative consequences of depletion. Martela,
de Haan, and Ryan’s chapter then utilizes self-determination theory to
discuss the energizing effects of autonomous self-regulation for defus-
ing depletion. We close this first section with a chapter by Carnavale and
Fujita, which emphasizes the importance in distinguishing among key
terms such as self-control, self-regulation, executive function, and inhibi-
tion for understanding ego depletion and its boundary conditions.
The second section addresses the role of motivation and goal pursuit
in self-control exertion. One important contribution of this section is to
imbed depletion research within the broader context of ongoing goal pur-
suit and various impulses. To date, much of the research has focused on
experimenter-provided tasks in a largely goal-absent context. This section
begins with a chapter by Schmeichel and Crowell, which explores how
depletion increases approach motivation and impulse strength. Hence,
self-control failures are not only a result of diminished capacity for con-
trol but also a consequence of the increased allure of temptations and
indulgences. Ampel, O’Malley, and Muraven’s chapter follows, and fur-
ther argues that the motivational effect of depletion is, at its core, both a
hedonic increase in temptations as well as a hedonic devaluation of effort
investment. Jia, Yu, Hirt, and Fishbach’s chapter then details the function
PREFACE xix
of depletion as a signal to prioritize one’s goal based on importance. This
section then closes with DeWall and Chester’s chapter highlighting the
role of depletion in fueling aggressive impulses.
The third section introduces the roles of expectancies, lay beliefs, and
individual differences in self-control exertion. This section kicks off with a
chapter by Clarkson, Otto, Hassey, and Hirt that outlines the extent to which
expectancies and perceptions of one’s state of depletion lead to the observed
performance effects, over and above actual levels of depletion. Job’s chap-
ter illustrates the powerful role that beliefs about limited versus nonlimited
theories of willpower play on susceptibility to depletion effects. This section
closes with Hirt, Clarkson, Egan, and Eyink’s chapter describing how lay
theories of replenishment determine restoration following depletion and
introduces a model of spontaneous resource recovery through psychologi-
cal (vs physiological) means.
The fourth section details multiple systems approaches to the phenom-
enon of depletion. Berkman, Kahn, and Livingston’s chapter leads off this
section by highlighting the central role of a valuation process of integrating
multiple sources of subjective value for a given choice option as a mecha-
nism of self-control. Wagner and Heatherton’s chapter follows with a dis-
cussion of the cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation failure by examining
the central roles of control and reward in modulating behavior. Robinson
and Wilkowski’s chapter then delves into the different facets of cognitive
control that are responsible for self-control and modulate depletion effects.
Masicampo and Slepian’s chapter introduces the notion that individuals
may draw upon other personal resources—social resources, money, bodily
resources, or time—to achieve their self-regulation goals. Interestingly, this
chapter discusses the potential substitutability of these different resources
and its implications for the expenditure of mental resources. The final chap-
ter of this section by Egan and Hirt devotes its attention more explicitly to
the distinction between physical and mental depletion. This chapter builds
upon dualistic beliefs of the interaction between mind and body to dem-
onstrate the impact that framing tasks as requiring physical as opposed to
mental resources may have for depletion effects.
In the final section of the book, we include three chapters which docu-
ment recent efforts to develop more inclusive and integrative models of self-
control exertion. Francis and Inzlicht’s chapter kick starts this section with
a discussion of the innate balance between immediate and long-term needs
and the implications of this balance for different underlying causes of ego
depletion. Next, Kotabe and Hoffman’s chapter presents their dual-process
model of depletion. This model outlines two central internal forces, repre-
sented in an activation cluster and an exertion cluster, which nicely capture
both the conflict between desires and higher order goals as well as the ele-
ments of self-control utilized to enact one’s volitional actions. Furthermore,
this model includes a concern with enactment constraints, which captures
