Seismic Stratigraphy and Depositional Facies Models

453 Pages·2014·462.2 MB·English

by  Paul P. Veeken (Auth.)

Seismic Stratigraphy and
Depositional Facies Models
Paul C.H. Veeken and Bruno van Moerkerken
© 2013 EAGE Publications bv
All rights reserved. This publication or part hereof may not be
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of the publisher.
ISBN 978-90-73834-43-9
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Cover photo: Panoramic view of the tectono-stratigraphic window
exposed in the Omani Mountains. The photograph is taken in the
Jebel Akhdar region near the village of Al Hajir, Sultanate of Oman
(10 km South of Awabi). The panorama shows deformed Pre-
Cambrian Huqf Group sediments in the center overlain by Permian
Khuff carbonates in the back. Photo by Bruno van Moerkerken.
1
Introduction.
1 Introduction.
Application of seismic stratigraphic techniques is nowadays standard practice for interpreting seismic data-
sets. The advantage of seismic stratigraphy for geological studies lies in the fact that the method combines
different scales of observation: large scale remote sensing seismic measurements and the high-resolution
well control logging / outcrop approach (Veeken 2007). Many workers have embraced seismic stratigraphic
principles to add value to their seismic observations (e.g. Payton et al. 1977, Brown and Fisher 1976 and
1980, Rochow 1981, Halbouty 1982, Berg and Woolverton 1985, Bally 1987, Wilgus et al. 1988, Ziegler
1990, Armentrout and Perkins 1991, Cramez et al. 1993, Den Hartog Jager et al. 1993, Henri 1994, Brown
1999, Cosentino 2001, Biju-Duval 2002, Davies et al. 2004, Pomerol et al. 2005, Catuneanu 2006, Miall
2010). The proposed seismic interpretation procedure represents a systematic workflow that has proven to
be a very powerful prediction tool for the evaluation of the subsurface structuration.
Conventional stratigraphy deals with data obtained from studies of outcrops, rock samples and petro-
physical measurements obtained in boreholes (Rawson et al. 2001). It allows determination of lithofa-
cies, environment of deposition and the assignment of ages (or relative ages) to discrete observation
points. Data between these calibration points are normally interpolated, often done in a rather crude and
simplistic way (Figure 1.1). Moreover, the information stemming from various study techniques are not
always directly in line with each other and this may lead to erroneous conclusions on the amount and
exact nature of the geological change in the subsurface (Veeken 1997).
The use of reflection seismic data in seismic stratigraphy provides a more sophisticated and robust
means to carry out these interpolations. The method respects better the shape of timelines in a dataset.
It honours the observed cyclicity in the rock record and relates the changes to fluctuations in baselevel
Figure 1.1: Two scenarios
for interpolation between
well calibration points. The
gas sand is only present in
the well at the right. Seismic
stratigraphic interpretation
techniques are needed to doc-
ument the pinch-out of sands
(after Veeken 2007).
Seismic Stratigraphy, P. Veeken and B. Van Moerkerken 2013 7
Chapter 1
Figure 1.2: Extract from the book ‘The History’ written by Herodotus in 450 BC, illustrating an early application of the
principles behind the acoustic echo-sounding investigation technique. Early detection of tunnels avoided the fall of the
city of Barka into the hands of invaders (modified after Lawyer 2004).
and global sealevel (cf Weimer 1988). Seismic stratigraphy equally allows extrapolation into less well-
known areas. Proper data integration is fundamental to a systematic work concept. An important aspect
of seismic interpretation is the analogy or example function, whereby calibrated datasets serve as a
reference or guide for the interpretation of less well-calibrated datasets. This approach permits to make
predictions on the geology and sedimentary development even in unknown basins, where borehole
information is scarce or even lacking. The analogy enables extrapolation of geologic data and/or work-
ing models into virgin frontier exploration areas (real wild-cat drilling acreage), hence allowing more
precise subsurface predictions. Seismic sequence stratigraphy helps to establish a valid working model
for the analysis of a sedimentary basinfill (cf Catuneanu et al. 2011). A major aim is also to provide
support for the description of petroleum systems (e.g. Weimer et al. 1994).
The reflection seismic method creates a geophysically sampled image of the subsurface, which has
to be interpreted in a geologically meaningful manner. The basic fundamentals of acoustic reflection
investigations are quite old. An early application of acoustic echo-sounding was illustrated by Lawyer
(2004) who quoted an extract from ‘The History Book 4’ written by Herodotus in 450 BC. In his exam-
ple a tunnel was dug by hostile city invaders. The tunnel itself was located by the city defenders in an
innovative manner, worth describing in further detail (Figure 1.2). A metal shield was thrown to the
ground and where the returned sound was rather dull, a tunnel was assumed present and appropriate
preventive action was taken against the invaders.
The seismic method was first applied to earthquake monitoring and allowed investigating the inter-
nal structure of the Earth. In the sixties and seventies of the last century the basic principles behind
the method were further explored and the benefits for the petroleum industry have boosted its use ever
since. The reflection seismic method and depth imaging have made tremendous further progress in the
8 Seismic Stratigraphy, P. Veeken and B. Van Moerkerken 2013
Introduction
last 20 years mainly because of the increase in computing power. The cost effectiveness of the reflec-
tion seismic method has been proven by numerous hydrocarbon exploitation projects around the world
(e.g. Berkhout 2005). The added value to the worldwide exploration and exploitation efforts is truly
impressive. Forward modelling, quantitative interpretation and high-resolution seismics still hold a great
potential for the energy and environmental sectors.
Seismic information constitutes unique data for evaluating the structuration and nature of subsurface
geology. Basic interpretation techniques are described by various authors, like Kleyn (1983), Brown
(1999), Bacon et al. 2003, Lines and Newrick (2004) and Brown (2005). As mentioned already, seismic
reflection data is crucial for assessing the amount of change between well calibration points (Figure 1.3).
The seismic method represents a convenient non-destructive remote-sensing technique, i.e. the object
under investigation is examined without being destroyed. The penetration depth of the reflection method
varies and depends mainly on the input signal and acquisition parameters of the seismic survey. It varies
from hundreds of metres to several kilometres and even beyond hundreds of kilometres when dealing
with very low frequent seismic signals (e.g. earthquakes).
The focus of this textbook is on the regional aspects of seismic stratigraphic interpretation. ‘Lateral
Prediction’ topics will be briefly touched upon and are described in a general way. The main objectives
of geoscience studies from a petroleum explorer’s point-of-view are:
•  To gain an understanding of the geological evolution of sedimentary basins and establish their 
litho- and chronostratigraphic framework. In the initial exploratory investigation phase this is
achieved even when only a limited amount of calibration information is available.
•  To pinpoint source rock and reservoir/seal pairs and define possible hydrocarbon plays (a group-
ing of various elements needed for the entrapment of the energy resource). This includes the
delineation of structural/stratigraphic traps, source rocks and the migration path, with an analysis
of possible DHI’s (Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators; e.g. a fluid contact in a reservoir that lights up
on seismic datasets).
Figure 1.3: Stratigraphic
pinch-out of complete strati-
graphic time units. Seismic
observations are crucial to
establish a basin wide frame
and a reliable well correlation
(modified after Lindseth and
Beraldo 1985, reprint from
AAPG whose permission is
required for further use).
Seismic Stratigraphy, P. Veeken and B. Van Moerkerken 2013 9
Chapter 1
Reservoirs are any rock or deposit that has porosity and permeability. Normally that are sedimentary
rocks but also fractured basement or volcanics can be a potential reservoir (Smith 1955, Petford and Mc
Caffrey 2003, Weyers et al. 2003).
The first thing to do, in order to meet the targets of seismic stratigraphic studies, is to extract relevant
information from all available datasets: outcrop / borehole / geophysical measurements. A multi-discipli-
nary approach is adopted by the methodology. The full range of geoscience-related working models and
methods are examined. That knowledge serves as reference for assisting in the geological interpretation
of the datasets. Experience is of great help to the interpreter. Having seen many field examples provides
a solid basis for making the right choices later on. The main task of an interpreter is to unravel the depo-
sitional and structural deformation history of the area under investigation. And it helps of course when
the chronological order of the main geologic events is already known from other studies.
It speaks for itself that data integration is best performed in an early phase of each seismic interpre-
tation project. It is crucial for instance to discriminate between genuine seismic events and artefacts,
introduced by acquisition/processing parameters and algorithms. Proper knowledge of the limitations
of the various geophysical methods helps to prevent the common pitfalls of over-interpretation. Quality
Figure 1.4: Hydrocarbons are generally
control and data checking are always hot issues, that should never be neglected during the processing
believed to stem from organic material and
and interpretation phases of a reservoir characterisation project (cf Da Silva et al. 2004). Appropriate
source rocks from sedimentary origin. The
QC steps are often tedious to implement, but ever so necessary. source rocks are buried and under changing PT
Below, first the physical restrictions imposed by the seismic method are examined. Afterwards the conditions the hydrocarbons are expelled from
the host rock and migrate updip due to density
basic seismic stratigraphic principles, with reflection termination mapping and proper well calibration,
contrast until a seal is encountered where reten-
are presented. Subsequently the various depositional environments and their models are described. Basin
tion take place and an accumulation is formed.
analysis gives a means to reconstruct the basin evolution (cf Kent 1982). Various types of basinfills are
All these elements describe a hydrocarbon play
distinguished and they can be classified according to their evolution (Kingston et al. 1983). The dynamics (modified from Veeken 2007).
of depositional systems and sealevel changes are important issues as they allow distinction of genetically
related units. Also the interplay between tectonic deformation and sedimentation patterns will be illus-
trated. Thereafter the hydrocarbon habitat topic will be addressed. Various lateral prediction and reservoir
characterisation methods are briefly described. Relatively new techniques - like high-resolution sequence
stratigraphy (Catuneanu et al. 2009), seismic inversion, AVO, attribute analysis, reservoir modelling, ani-
sotropic and multi-component processing - open up new ways for evaluating the basin fill in detail. Finally,
the attention is focussed on different elements of petroleum systems, hydrocarbon plays, ranking of pros-
pects and some general economic aspects of the petroleum business are briefly discussed.
Hydrocarbons are generally believed to be generated from organic material in source rocks (Durand
1980). These source rocks get buried in the subsurface and are exposed to a different pressure/temperature
regime (Figure 1.4). At certain pressure-temperature conditions hydrocarbons get expelled from the source
rock. The burial and thermal history is extremely important to understand the maturation of a source rock
interval (Milner 1998, Makhous and Galushlin 2004). The hydrocarbons are expelled and migrate into
adjacent reservoirs through the porous media. They move mostly updip because of density differentials, till
a trap is encountered and the hydrocarbon is retained below the seal (e.g. Illing and Hobson 1981, Brooks
and Glennie 1987, Hunt 1990, Gluyas and Swarbrick 2004). All these elements define together a so-called
‘hydrocarbon play’ (Figure 1.5). Modelling can be done to simulate the hydrocarbon generation from the
source rocks in the kitchen (area with special P and T conditions) and migration into the reservoir (Car and
Petersen 2004). The criticals factors for a hydrocarbon play and individual prospects can be evaluated to
make a ranking possible (Metwalli and Pigott 2005). The subsidence and heatflow are parameters that
should be condisered in order to reconstruct the maturation history (Royden et al. 1980). A prospect is a
Figure 1.5: Basin modelling and hydrocarbon
special reservoir/seal configuration that forms a trap for the migrating hydrocarbons. A lead is an indica-
generation scenarios are important for the eval-
tion that a prospect might exist. Several plays can share the same source rock/kitchen area, but hydrocar-
uation of the prospectivity of an area. Petroleum
bons migrate into different reservoir layers. Hydrocarbon plays with similar elements are grouped together
systems link the various hydrocarbon play con-
to form a petroleum system (Magoon and Dow 1994, Terken 1999, Doust 2003). cepts (modified after Veeken 2007).
10 Seismic Stratigraphy, P. Veeken and B. Van Moerkerken 2013
Introduction
Reservoirs are any rock or deposit that has porosity and permeability. Normally that are sedimentary
rocks but also fractured basement or volcanics can be a potential reservoir (Smith 1955, Petford and Mc
Caffrey 2003, Weyers et al. 2003).
The first thing to do, in order to meet the targets of seismic stratigraphic studies, is to extract relevant
information from all available datasets: outcrop / borehole / geophysical measurements. A multi-discipli-
nary approach is adopted by the methodology. The full range of geoscience-related working models and
methods are examined. That knowledge serves as reference for assisting in the geological interpretation
of the datasets. Experience is of great help to the interpreter. Having seen many field examples provides
a solid basis for making the right choices later on. The main task of an interpreter is to unravel the depo-
sitional and structural deformation history of the area under investigation. And it helps of course when
the chronological order of the main geologic events is already known from other studies.
It speaks for itself that data integration is best performed in an early phase of each seismic interpre-
tation project. It is crucial for instance to discriminate between genuine seismic events and artefacts,
introduced by acquisition/processing parameters and algorithms. Proper knowledge of the limitations
of the various geophysical methods helps to prevent the common pitfalls of over-interpretation. Quality
Figure 1.4: Hydrocarbons are generally
control and data checking are always hot issues, that should never be neglected during the processing
believed to stem from organic material and
and interpretation phases of a reservoir characterisation project (cf Da Silva et al. 2004). Appropriate
source rocks from sedimentary origin. The
QC steps are often tedious to implement, but ever so necessary. source rocks are buried and under changing PT
Below, first the physical restrictions imposed by the seismic method are examined. Afterwards the conditions the hydrocarbons are expelled from
the host rock and migrate updip due to density
basic seismic stratigraphic principles, with reflection termination mapping and proper well calibration,
contrast until a seal is encountered where reten-
are presented. Subsequently the various depositional environments and their models are described. Basin
tion take place and an accumulation is formed.
analysis gives a means to reconstruct the basin evolution (cf Kent 1982). Various types of basinfills are
All these elements describe a hydrocarbon play
distinguished and they can be classified according to their evolution (Kingston et al. 1983). The dynamics (modified from Veeken 2007).
of depositional systems and sealevel changes are important issues as they allow distinction of genetically
related units. Also the interplay between tectonic deformation and sedimentation patterns will be illus-
trated. Thereafter the hydrocarbon habitat topic will be addressed. Various lateral prediction and reservoir
characterisation methods are briefly described. Relatively new techniques - like high-resolution sequence
stratigraphy (Catuneanu et al. 2009), seismic inversion, AVO, attribute analysis, reservoir modelling, ani-
sotropic and multi-component processing - open up new ways for evaluating the basin fill in detail. Finally,
the attention is focussed on different elements of petroleum systems, hydrocarbon plays, ranking of pros-
pects and some general economic aspects of the petroleum business are briefly discussed.
Hydrocarbons are generally believed to be generated from organic material in source rocks (Durand
1980). These source rocks get buried in the subsurface and are exposed to a different pressure/temperature
regime (Figure 1.4). At certain pressure-temperature conditions hydrocarbons get expelled from the source
rock. The burial and thermal history is extremely important to understand the maturation of a source rock
interval (Milner 1998, Makhous and Galushlin 2004). The hydrocarbons are expelled and migrate into
adjacent reservoirs through the porous media. They move mostly updip because of density differentials, till
a trap is encountered and the hydrocarbon is retained below the seal (e.g. Illing and Hobson 1981, Brooks
and Glennie 1987, Hunt 1990, Gluyas and Swarbrick 2004). All these elements define together a so-called
‘hydrocarbon play’ (Figure 1.5). Modelling can be done to simulate the hydrocarbon generation from the
source rocks in the kitchen (area with special P and T conditions) and migration into the reservoir (Car and
Petersen 2004). The criticals factors for a hydrocarbon play and individual prospects can be evaluated to
make a ranking possible (Metwalli and Pigott 2005). The subsidence and heatflow are parameters that
should be condisered in order to reconstruct the maturation history (Royden et al. 1980). A prospect is a
Figure 1.5: Basin modelling and hydrocarbon
special reservoir/seal configuration that forms a trap for the migrating hydrocarbons. A lead is an indica-
generation scenarios are important for the eval-
tion that a prospect might exist. Several plays can share the same source rock/kitchen area, but hydrocar-
uation of the prospectivity of an area. Petroleum
bons migrate into different reservoir layers. Hydrocarbon plays with similar elements are grouped together
systems link the various hydrocarbon play con-
to form a petroleum system (Magoon and Dow 1994, Terken 1999, Doust 2003). cepts (modified after Veeken 2007).
Seismic Stratigraphy, P. Veeken and B. Van Moerkerken 2013 11
Chapter 1
Sedimentary basin fills have special attention of the petroleum geoscientist because of the close rela-
tionship between hydrocarbons and sedimentary rocks. The economic basement for hydrocarbon pro-
jects has shifted steadily deeper over the last 50 years. Nowadays even a water depth of 3000 metres is
not stopping exploration efforts (Figure 1.6). Harsh conditions and marketing problems put constraints
on the development of exploitation projects, e.g. Shtokman gasfield in the Barents Sea was discovered
in 1988 but is not yet developed in 2013. The unconventional shale gas projects in the United States
during the last decade have had a knock-on effect on gas prices. Fraccing is an important technique to
stimulate the flow from the low permeable rocks (Dutta 1987). Instead of an importer the United States
may even become a net exporter. This development changes the economic forecasts and other countries
may follow suit. For the Russians these recent developments have shed some doubts on the viability of
heavy investment projects like the Shtokman gas production project.
An integrated approach is favoured by most researchers, whereby several geoscience disciplines
(geologist, geophysicist, petrophysicist and reservoir engineers) work intensely together to aim for the
best possible end result (e.g. Lasseter and Jackson 2004, Cosentino 2001, Lopez et al. 2004). Iterative
updating of the common shared-earth model is the keystone of such an integrated approach.
Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) issues are always integral part of the professional and private
life. Hence the general guidelines are taken into account whenever performing applied geoscience tasks
Figure 1.6: Deep water drilling has developed rapidly over the last couple of years. Currently 3000 metres water depth is
approximately the economic limit. Also seismic acquisition/processing has evolved significantly and modern surveys can
handle large amounts of digital data (modified after the Economist Technology Quaterly Q1 2010).
12 Seismic Stratigraphy, P. Veeken and B. Van Moerkerken 2013
Introduction
Figure 1.7: Delineation of possible hydrocarbon traps is often supported by seismic attribute analysis. AVO and inver-
sion processing give access to additional seismic information, that leads to improved volumetrics and better risk analysis.
Ultimately it will result in more optimised development plans (FDP) and the HC recovery rate is in many cases augmented
considerably, as will be shown in the chapters below (Veeken 2007).
(Figure 1.7). The ultimate target for HSE policies is zero accidents. Unfortunately this goal is never
achieved because accidents do happen. The blow-out calamity in April 2010 which happened in the BP
deep water Macondo well located in the Gulf of Mexico has reminded the industry of the astronomic
costs (at least 34 billion US $) involved when something goes drastically wrong. A bad cementing job
had tragic consequences and eleven of our colleagues lost their precious lives on the occasion. Naturally
we all bear responsibility to prevent such operational disasters from happening. HSE procedures and
guidelines are put in place, but the results of a company policy all depend on how the safety measures
are implemented in the field (cf Brinded 2005).
The current textbook is based on an earlier book published by Elsevier Scientific Publisher: ‘Seismic
stratigraphy, basin analysis and reservoir characterisation’ (Veeken 2007). Most study subjects in this
textbook are covered in an introductory manner; for more in-depth information the reader is encouraged
to explore the list of references and publications section in the back part of the book.
This textbook is the first volume in a series of two, concerning seismic sequence stratigraphy issued
by Elsevier-Reed and the EAGE. The first volume ‘Seismic stratigraphy and depositional facies models’
is dealing with seismic reflection acquisition and processing, seismic stratigraphic principles and sedi-
mentary depositional models and provides the reader with essential tools for the systematic interpreta-
tion of seismic data. The second volume ‘Seismic sequence stratigraphy and reservoir characterisation’
will focus on structural deformation and sedimentary basin formation, seismic sequence stratigraphy,
hydrocarbon habitat and various reservoir characterisation topics.
Seismic Stratigraphy, P. Veeken and B. Van Moerkerken 2013 13