Table Of ContentSeedS of ConfliCt
in a Haven of PeaCe
this is no. 44 of Studies in World Christianity and interreligious Relations.
the Studies are a continuation of the Church and theology in Context
series.
the Studies are published by the foundation for Studies in World
Christianity and interreligious Relations in collaboration with the nijmegen
institute for Mission Studies and the Chair of World Christianity and
interreligious Relations at Radboud University nijmegen, the netherlands.
the aim of the Studies is to publish scholarly works on Christianity and
other religions, from the perspective of interactions within them and
between them.
General editor:
frans Wijsen, nijmegen, the netherlands.
editorial board:
Michael amaladoss, Chennai, india.
francis Clooney, Cambridge, United States of america.
diego irarrazaval, Santiago, Chile.
viggo Mortensen, aarhus, denmark.
Robert Schreiter, Chicago, United States of america.
abdulkader tayob, Cape town, South africa.
Gerard Wiegers, nijmegen, the netherlands.
Manuscripts for consideration can be sent to frans Wijsen, Radboud
University nijmegen, P.o. Box 9103, 6500 Hd nijmegen, the netherlands.
SeedS of ConfliCt
in a Haven of PeaCe
fRoM ReliGioUS StUdieS to
inteRReliGioUS StUdieS in afRiCa
fRanS WijSen
amsterdam - new York, nY 2007
The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO
9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for documents -
Requirements for permanence”.
ISBN: 978-90-420-2188-4
©Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam - New York, NY 2007
Printed in the Netherlands
Foreword
This study is the outcome of a research project that started in 2001, culminating
in three months of fieldwork in Nairobi in 2004. Because of its relative stability
Nairobi has quite a number of departments of religious studies and schools of
theology, as well as headquarters of continental ecclesiastic organisations (ecu-
menical, evangelical and African instituted). The exception is the Catholic one,
which is based in Accra. Our sources are the texts that are produced and repro-
duced by these institutions, as well as the academic discourses that are conducted
there. One of the aims of the fieldwork was to upgrade my knowledge of African
philosophy – a field that I have neglected in the past, I must admit, because of
my preoccupation with anthropological research. I found recent developments in
African philosophy very promising, drawing a true picture of Africa. That is why
the reader will find more philosophical insights in this book than in my previous
publications.
I would like to thank Dr Godffrey Ngumi, secretary of the Association of
Theological Institutions in East Africa, for helping me with data collection.
Dr Philomena Mwaura, senior lecturer of religious studies at Kenyatta University,
and Prof. Jesse Mugambi, professor of religious studies at the University of
Nairobi, kindly did the proof reading. I am grateful for their critical comments.
Marcelle Manley not only corrected the language but also clarified some of the
ideas. Last but not least, I thank staff and students of Tangaza School of Theology,
Catholic University of East Africa in Nairobi, Kenya, and staff and students of the
Graduate School of Theology, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands,
for their critical questions and comments.
Table of contents
Introduction 9
Chapter One: Preliminary explorations 31
1.1 What is an African perspective? 31
1.2 A theory of interreligious relations 41
1.3 A multi-perspective and poly-methodical approach 49
Conclusion 58
Chapter Two: Transformation of religion in Africa 59
2.1 Survival and revival of African Religions 59
2.2 Mission and dialogue in African Islam 63
2.3 Trends in African Christianity 69
Conclusion 75
Chapter Three: The study of religion in Africa 77
3.1 Religious studies in Africa 77
3.2 Philosophy in Africa 85
3.3 Theology in Africa 92
Conclusion 100
Chapter Four: Education in interreligious relations 101
4.1 Documents 102
4.2 Interviews 112
4.3 Questionnaire 116
Conclusion 119
Chapter Five: Religion, conflict and reconciliation 121
5.1 Religion in Africa and conflict 121
5.2 Conflicts in Africa and human rights 129
5.3 Religion and reconciliation 135
Conclusion 141
8 Table of contents
Chapter Six: Synthesis, extremism and dialogue 143
6.1 Dualism and synthesis 144
6.2 Secularism and extremism 149
6.3 Mission and dialogue in African Religions 155
Conclusion 160
Chapter Seven: Fully committed and fully open 161
7.1 The legacy of Samuel Kibicho 161
7.2 Christ and the Spirit 165
7.3 Social identity theory revisited 170
Conclusion 177
Chapter Eight: Africans in diaspora 179
8.1 Reversed mission? 179
8.2 The West and the rest of us 186
8.3 Switch and coordination of perspectives 190
Conclusion 195
Chapter Nine: Towards a dialogical and diaconal church 197
9.1 Interreligious dialogue and social ministry 197
9.2 The church as the family of God 201
9.3 Spirituality of the road 210
Conclusion 219
Chapter Ten: Renaissance or reconstruction? 221
10.1 Return to the path of the ancestors? 221
10.2 Come, let us rebuild! 228
10.3 Concerned African women theologians 232
Conclusion 236
General conclusions 239
Bibliography 249
Appendix 1: Institutions and informants participating in the study 267
Appendix 2: Survey of the study of interfaith relations in theological
institutions in East Africa 275
Index of names 277
Introduction
Between 1984 and 1988 I conducted fieldwork for my doctoral dissertation on
popular religion in Sukumaland, Northwest Tanzania. It was a transitional
period, in which Tanzania gradually moved from a one-party political system
and state-controlled economy to a multi-party government and an open market
economy. During the same years there was growing religious tension between
Muslims and Christians. Up to 1985 Tanzania had been considered a haven of
peace in a region otherwise troubled by religious and ethnic conflicts. But even
in this haven of peace seeds of conflict were sprouting. Seeds need fertile soil to
germinate and flourish. I will argue that present-day Africa offers such a breeding-
ground for seeds of conflict and that many scholars of religion in Africa
overlook this because of an overly Afro-centric ideology about Africa’s commu-
nity spirit and tradition of peaceful coexistence.1Undoubtedly there was such a
tradition. But when it is romanticised, scholars of religion fail to see the cultural
contradictions and tensions that were there as well – contradictions that could
lead to serious trouble under different conditions, such as the contemporary
process of globalisation. On the other hand, evidence shows that seeds of conflict
fail to grow if preventive measures are taken, such as the language policy of the
post-independence government of Tanzania (Wijsen & Mfumbusa 2004: 76–79).
After defending my doctoral dissertation, which focussed on the interaction
between Christianity and African Indigenous Religion, my interest shifted to
Islam and Muslim-Christian relations in (East) Africa. My first article on that
topic was written in an optimistic mood (Wijsen 1997a). I wrote that religious
tensions occurred mainly in the minds of religious leaders, not at the grass-
roots, and that it was predominantly a problem in the coastal regions, not in
upcountry Tanzania. But after conducting a survey among 250 students at
St Augustine University of Tanzania in Mwanza (Wijsen & Mfumbusa 2004)
I had to revise my thinking. When the American embassies in Nairobi and
Dar es Salaam were bombed and 200 people, mostly Africans, lost their lives on
7 August 1998, it was clearly evident that something had gone seriously wrong.
The bombings in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam shattered the image of Africa’s
tradition of peaceful religious coexistence (Van’t Leven 1993; Dopamu 1988)
and, although largely ignored in the West, they deeply affected the lives of
1 Reflections of Africa’s tradition of peaceful coexistence of religions are Kwame Nkrumah’s
Consciencism(1970) and Ali Mazrui’s Triple heritage(1986).
Description:On 7 August 1998 the American embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam were bombed and 200 people lost their lives. These bombings shattered the image of Africa's tradition of peaceful religious coexistence. Since then inter-religious dialogue has been high on the agendas of ecclesial and religious or
