Sedimentary geology: sedimentary basins, depositional environments, petroleum formation

658 Pages·2002·61.01 MB·English

by  Bernard Biju-Duval

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~! INSTITUT FRAN<;AIS DU pf:TROLE PUBLICATIONS
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B. BIJU-DUVAL
SEDIMENTARY
GEOLOGY
Sedimentary Basins
Depositional Environments
Petroleum Formation
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BB.. BBUUUU--DDUUVV AALL IIIIII
FOREWORD
As this book is intended for engineering students in geology and geophysics, drillers,
producers, and economists, it voluntarily leaves out certain aspects of geology such as min
eralogy, the geology of crystalline basements, and metamorphism. It essentially deals with
sedimentary geology and was designed as a teaching support with an emphasis on the basics
and the language used in the profession.
It is based on geological observations on different scales, and is largely illustrated froIl9
" field observations and analysis. The illustrations were prepared from my own experience
and draw many examples from studies conducted in the framework of research projects at
the Institut jranrais du petro Ie (IFP) and in the petroleum exploration work mentioned in the
references.
The reader will find figures and examples borrowed from applied geophysical tech
niques routinely used in exploring sedimentary basins, but not discussed here. These are
developed in manuals and collections recently published by Editions Technip:
• Geophysics for Sedimentary Basins, G. Henry, 1997
• Seismic Surveying and Well logging, S. Boyer and J.-L. Mari, 1997
• Signal Processing for Geologists and Geophysicists, J.-L. Mari, F. Glangeaud, and
F. Coppens, 1999.
B. Biju-Duval
IV B. BUU-DUVA L
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book would never have been written without the initial encouragements of Michel
Lavergne, who was director of the Exploration center at the Ecole du petrole et des moteurs
at the time work began on the book.
I would also like to express my gratitude toward my two colleagues, Paul Tn!molieres
and Alain Mascle, for their very constructive cooperation and the pertinent feedback they
gave me on the initial manuscript.
Special thanks go to Claude Laffont for his very active help in choosing the illustrations
taken from the Exploration center's documentary fund. Pierre Bot, Etienne Brosse, Bernard
Colletta, Patrick Duval, Remi Eschard and Alain-Yves Huc at the IFP and at the School, and
Christian Montenat at the IGAL, also provided precious assistance in the preparation of
many illustrations. And Bernard Durand, the Exploration center's director, encouraged me
to finish the work.
Final thanks go to the supportive and available technical team who took care of every
thing from production to publication, from secretarial services, graphics, page layout, to bib
liography: Mesdames Bertocchini, Bertrand, Darrigade, Mangion, and Rio, and Messrs.
Arenne, Darrigade, and Henry. And for this English version, I should add my compliments
and recognition to the translator, J. Edwin Swezey, and to the Traduclair translation com
pany for its steadfast support, supervision, and their work in generating the English index.
This book is also theirs.
B. BIJU-DUV AL v
•
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword.......................................................................................................................................................... III
Acknowledgments ......................... :.:.............................................................................................................. V
Chapter 1
BASICS OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY
1.1 Definitions ............................................................................................................................................ .
1.2 Observation and Measurement Scales. Time Scales........................................................ 3
1.2.1 3D Space........................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Time Scales. ...................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Kinematic Reconstruction .............................................................................................................. 11
1.3 Earth Structure: Geodynamic Framework. ............................................ :............................ 14
1.3.1 Shape ................................................................................................................................................ 14
1.3.2 General Makeup ............................. :............................................................................................... 14
1.3.3 Deep Earth....................................................................................................................................... 17
1.3.4 The Blue Planet ............................................................................................................................... 19
1.3.5 Plates and Hot Spots ....................................................................................................................... 22
1.3.5.1 Plate Characteristics............................................................................................................ 24
1.3.5.2 Plate Boundaries ................................................................................................................. 24
1.3.5.3 Intraplate Volcanism and Hot Spots................................................................................... 30
1.3.6 Sedimentary Basins......................................................................................................................... 32
1.4 Driving Mechanisms........................................................................................................................ 35
1.4.1 Internal Drives ................................................................................................................................ 36
1.4.1.1 Earth Dynamo..................................................................................................................... 36
1.4.1.2 Gravity Field....................................................................................................................... 42
1.4.1.3 Heat Mat,ine...................................................................................................................... 42
1.4.1.4 Stresses, Deformation and Breakup.................................................................................... 45
1.4.2 External Drives ............................................................................................................................... 49
1.4.2.1 Orbital Parameters .............................................................................................................. 49
1.4.2.2 Ocean-Atmosphere Coupling ............................................................................................. 51
1.4.2.3 Chemical Environment and Role of the Biological World................................................. 52
1.4.2.4 Fluids .................................................................................................................................. 54
1.4.3 Rhythms, Cycles, Events ................................................................................................................ 54
B. BIJU-DUV AL VII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 2
CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC BASINS
2.1 Basin Definitions and Diversity ................................................................................................. 59
't
2.2 Basin Classifications........................................................................................................................ 65
2.3 Troughs, Rifts, Aulacogens, and Divergent Continental Margins............................ 70
2.3.1 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 70
2.3.2 Formation Mechanisms.................................................................................................................. 74
2.3.2.1 Rifting................................................................................................................................. 76
2.3.2.2 Uniform Extension Model.................................................................................................. 79
2.3.2.3 Depth-Dependent Extension Model................................................................................... 81
2.3.2.4 Non-Uniform Extension Model.......................................................................................... 84
2.3.2.5 Passive Margins.................................................................................................................. 86
2.3.3 General Features............................................................................................................................. 90
2.4 Cratonic, Continental, and Epicontinental Basins ........................................................... 95
2.4.1 Craton and Cratonic Basins .......................................................................................................... 95
2.4.2 Formation Mechanisms.................................................................................................................. 96
2.4.3 General Features............................................................................................................................. 100
2.5 Oceanic Basins.................................................................................................................................... 103
2.5.1 Definitions ....................................................................................................................................... 103
2.5.2 Formation Mechanisms.................................................................................................................. 104
2.5.3 General Features............................................................................................................................. 107
2.6 Basins Associated with Active Margins and Folded Belts ............................................ 108
2.6.1 Different Types ............................................................................................................................... 108
2.6.2 Formation Mechanisms.................................................................................................................. III
2.6.2.1 Flexure .................................................................................................. ;............................. 112
2.6.2.2 Subduction.......................................................................................................................... 114
2.6.2.3 Arc Basin Development ..................................................................................................... 115
2.6.2.4 Accretion Wedge and Forearc Basins ................................................................................ I ttl
2.6.2.5 Backarc Extension.............................................................................................................. l~
2.6.2.6 Strike Slip and Episutural and Intermontane Basins .......................................................... 't1.f
2.6.3 General Features of Active Margin Basins .................................................................................. 124
VIII B. BUU-DUVA L
h'.
TABLE OF CO•NT ENTS
Chapter 3
SEDIMENTARY DRIVING MECHANISMS AND ENVIRONMENTS
3.1 Sediment Origins, Modes of Transport and Deposit....................................................... 129
3.1.1 Sediment Origins............................................................................................................................. 129
3.1.1.1 Parent Rock ........ :................................................................................................................ 129
3.1.1.2 Weathering and Erosion ..................................................................................................... 134
3.1.1.3 Chemical and Biochemical Precipitation............................................................................ 139
3.1.1.4 Other Sources (Precipitation, Volcanic, Hydrothermal, Cosmic Dust}.............................. 144
3.1.2 Sedimentary Transport and Deposit. Lateral Progradation, Vertical Aggradation ................ 144
3.1.2.1 Transport in Solution .......................................................................................................... 144
3.1.2.2 Particle Transport, Lateral Progradation, Vertical Aggradation......................................... 145
3.1.2.3 Forms of Deposit, Structures, and Sedimentary Bodies ..................................................... 153
3.1.2.4 Sedimentation Rate............................................................................................................. 159
3.1.2.5 Autocyclic and Allocyclic Phenomena............................................................................... 160
3.2 Continental Environments ........................................................................................................... 161
3.2.1 General Characteristics.................................................................................................................. 162
3.2.1.1 Continental Facies .............................................................................................................. 162
3.2.1.2 Deposit Zoning ................................................................................................................... 162
3.2.1.3 Oxidizing Environment ...................................................................................................... 164
3.2.1.4 Soils of Different Types, Paleosols ........................................................ ;........................... 166
3.2.1.5 Vegetation and Photosynthesis........................................................................................... 166
3.2.1.6 Biomarker Fossils and Crises ............................................................................................. 167
3.2.1.7 Continental Morphologies .:.:.............................................................................................. 168
3.2.1.8 Transfers with the Ocean .................................................................................................... 172
3.2.2 Eolian Systems and Deposits.......................................................................................................... 175
3.2.2.1 Wind Mechanisms .............................................................................................................. 176
3.2.2.2 Deposit Materials and Shapes............................................................................................. 178
3.2.2.3 Great Eolian Deposition of the Past.................................................................................... 181
3.2.3 Lacustrine Environment ................................................................................................................ 181
3.2.3.1 Varied Processes, Varied Facies......................................................................................... 181
3.2.3.2 Ancient Deposits................................................................................................................. 185
3.2.4 Fluvial Domain and Alluvial Deposits .......................................................................................... 185
3.2.4.1 Processes and Driving Factors: Definitions........................................................................ 185
3.2.4.2 Structural Control and Geomorphology ............................................................................. 190
3.2.4.3 Main Types of fluvial Deposits at Different Scales........................................................... 191
3.2.4.4 Petroleum Aspect................................................................................................................ 206
3.2.4.5 Time Evo~!1tion and Ancient fluvial Systems.................................................................... 209
3.2.5 Glacial and Periglacial Environments .......................................................................................... 211
3.2.5.1 Processes............................................................................................................................. 211
3.2.5.2 Glacial and Periglacial Sediments and Depositional Forms............................................... 216
3.2.5.3 Glacial Epochs and Geological Impact............................................................................... 221
3.2.6 Volcanic Deposits ............................................................................................................................ 222.
B. BUU-DUV AL IX