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Secularization, R.I.P. Author(s): Rodney Stark Source: Sociology of Religion, Vol. 60, No. 3 (Autumn, 1999), pp. 249-273 Published by: Oxford University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3711936 . Accessed: 11/08/2013 15:27 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . Oxford University Press and Association for the Sociology of Religion, Inc. are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Sociology of Religion. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SociologoyfR eligio1n9 99,6 0:32 49-273 SecularizationR,. l.P. RodneSyt ark* UniverosifWt ya shington Fromth eb eginninsogc,i aslc ientihstasv ec elebrattehdes ecularizattihones dise spitteh ef actt hat itn evewr asc onsistewnitt hem piricraela lityM.o ret han1 50y earasg oT ocqueviplloei nteodu tt hat 'thef actbs yn om eanasc corwd ith[t hese cularizatitohne]o rya,n"d t hilsa cko fa ccorhd asg rowfna r worssei ncet henI.n deedt,h eo nlys hreodf c redibilfitoyrt hen otionth atse cularizathioansb een takinpgl aceh asd ependeodn c ontrasbtest weenno wa nda bygonAeg eo fF aithI.n thise ssayI assemblteh ew orko fm anyr ecenhti storiawnsh oa reu nanimouths att heA geo fF aithis pure nostalg-i a thatla cko fr eligiopuasr ticipatwioans ,i fa nythinegv,e nm orwe idespreiandm edieval timetsh ann ow.N extI, demonstrtahtaett h erhea veb eenn or ecenrte ligiocuhsa ngeinsC hristendomn thata re consistenwti tht hes ecularizatitohne si-s note vena mongsc ientistIs a. lso expand assessmeonftt hes ecularizatdioonct rintoen on-Christsioacni etisehs owintgh ant ote vent heh ighly magica"l folkr eligionisn" Asia haves hownt hes lightedsetc lineisn responsteo quiter apid modernizatFioinna. wl ordasr eo fferaesd s ecularizatiisol ani dt or est. Forn earlyth reec enturiesso,c ials cientisatns da ssortewd esterinn tellectuals haveb eenp romisintgh ee ndo fr eligionE.a chg eneratiohna s beenc onfident thatw ithinan othefre wd ecadeso,r p ossiblay b itl ongerh,u manws ill" outgrow" beliefi n the supernaturTalh. is propositiosno on camet o be knowna s the secularizatiothne sisa,n d itse arliespt roponentses emt o haveb eenB ritisha,s theR estoratioinn 1660l ed to an erad uringw hichm ilitanatt tackos n faith wereq uitep opulara mongf ashionabLleo ndoner(sD uranta nd Durant1 965). Thus,a s fara s I ama blet od iscoverit,w asT homaWs oolstonw hof irsste ta date byw hicht imem odernitwyo uldh avet riumpheodv erf aithW. ritingin about 1710,h e expressehdi s confidencteh atC hristianitwyo uldb e goneb y 1900 (Woolston1 733). Halfa centuryla terF rederictkh eG reatt houghtth isw as mucht oo pessimisticw, ritingto his friendV oltairet hat" theE nglishman Woolston.. . couldn otc alculatew hath as happenedq uiter ecently. . . . It [religioni]s crumblinogf itselfa,n d itsf allw illb e butt he morer apid'( in Redman1 949:2 6). In responsVe,o ltairve enturehdi sg uesst hatt hee ndw ould comew ithinth en ext5 0 yearsS.u bsequentlnyo,t e venw idespreapdr essr eports concernintgh es econd" GreatA wakeningc"o uldd eterT homasJ effersforno m * I uouldl iket ot hanAk ndreGwr eeleyw,i gwt homI h avel ongb eene xchangicnitga tionosn t hen onexisteonfca en Ageo fF aithin E uropeahni storDyi.r eccto rrespndentocR e odneSyt arkD, eparuneonftS ociolog(Byo x3 53340), UniversoitfWy ashingtSoena,t tleW, A9 8196. 249 This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 250 SOCIOLOGYO F RELIGION predictinign 1822t hat" thereis nota youngm ann owl ivingin theU nited Statesw how illn otd iea Unitarian(H" ealy1 984:3 73). Ofc oursea, generation laterU, nitarianws erea s scarcea s ever,w hilet heM ethodisatns dB aptistcso n- tinuedth eirsp ectacularra teso fg rowt(hF inkea ndS tark1 992). Subsequenptr ophetosf s ecularizatiohna veb eenn o lessc ertainb, utt hey have beens omewhamt orec ircumspecast to dates.T hus,j usta s Jefferson's prophesfya iledb, acki n FranceA, ugustCe omtea nnouncetdh at,a s a resulot f modernizatiohnu,m ans ocietyw aso utgrowinthg e" theologicsatla geo" fs ocial evolutionan da newa ge wasd awningin whicht hes cienceo fs ociologwy ould replacre eligioans theb asisf orm orajlu dgmentBsu. t,C omted idn ots aye xactly whena ll thisw ouldb e accomplisheIdn. similafr ashiona,s oftena s Frederich Engelsg loateda bouth ow the socialistr evolutionw ouldc ause religiont o evaporathe,e wouldo nlys ayt hati tw ouldh appen" soon."In 1878M axM uller (p. 218)c omplainetdh at: Everyd ay,e veryw eeke, verym onthe,v eryq uartert,h em ostw idelyre adj ournalsse emj ust nowt o vie withe acho theri n tellingu s thatt het imef orr eligionis past,t hatf aithis a hallucinatoioran n i nfantdilies easteh, atth eg odhs avea tl astb eenf ounodu ta nde xploded. At thes tarotf t het wentietchen turyA,. E. Crawley(1 905:8 ) reportetdh at" the opinioni s everywhegraei ningg roundth atr eligionis a meres urvivaflr oma primitiv. e.. age,a nd itse xtinctioonn lya matteorf t ime.S" everayl earlsa ter, whenM ax Webere xplainedw hym odernizatiwono uldc auset he" disenchant- mento" ft hew orlda,n dw henS igmundF reudr eassurehdi sd iscipletsh att his greatesotf a ll neurotiicl lusionws ouldd ie upont het herapistc'osu ch,t heyt oo wouldb e no mores pecifitch an" soon." A generatiolnat erh, owever",s oon"b ecame" underwaoyr" "ongoingF."o r examplet,h ed istinguishaendt hropologAisnt thonyF. C. Wallace( 1966: 264- 265) explainedt o tenso f thousandosf Americanu ndergraduattehsa t' the evolutionarfyu turoef religionis extinctiona,"n d whileh e admittetdh ati t mightr equir"es everahl undreyd earst"o completet hep rocessi,t alreadyw as wellu nderwaiyn thea dvancedn ationsA. nd throughohuits i llustriocuasr eer, BryanW ilson( 1982: 150-151)h as describedse cularizatioans "a longt erm procesosc curriningh umanso cietya'n dp ointedou tt hat" thep rocesism pliciitn thec oncepot fs ecularizaticoonn cedeast oncet hei deao fa n earliecro nditioonf lifet hatw asn ots ecularo,r t hatw asa t leastm uchl esss ecularth ant hato fo ur ownt imes." Then in 1968,i n contrastto all of thisi ntellectuaplu ssy-footinPegt,e r Berge(r1 968: 3) toldt heN ewY orkT irnetsh att heb y" the2 1stc enturyre, ligious believerasr el ikelyt o be foundo nlyi n smalls ectsh, uddledto gethetro resisat worldwidseec ularc ulture.U" nleashinhgi sg iftf orm emorabilme ageryB,e rger saidt hat" thep redicamenoftt heb elieveris increasinglliyk et hato fa Tibetan astrologoenr a prolongevdi sitt oa n Americaunn iversityIn." l ighto ft her ecent lionizatioonf t heD alai Lamab yt heA mericanm ediaa ndh isc ordiawl elcome This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SECULARIZATIONR, .M.P. 251 to variousc ampuses,B erger'ssi milen ow admitst o rathera differenitn terpre- tation.I n anye vent,w henh isp redictionh ad onlyt hreey earsl eftt o run,B erger gracefullrye cantedh is beliefi n secularization(a s I discussa t the end of this essay).I quoteh is statementdsu ringt he 1960so nlyb ecauset heys o fullye xpress them oodo ft het imesa, moodt hatI shared( cf.,S tark1 963). Noticef ivet hingsa bouta ll oft heses ecularizatiopnr ophesies. Firstt, herei s universaal greementth atm odernizatioins the causal engine draggintgh eg odsi ntor etiremenTth. at is,t hes ecularizatiodno ctrineh as always nestledw ithint he broadert heoreticafl rameworokf modernizatiotnh eoriesi,t being proposed that as industrializationu,r banizationa, nd rationalization increaser, eligiousnesms ustd ecrease( Hadden 1987; Finke1 992). Keep in mind thatm odernizatioins a longg, raduarle, lativeclyon stanptr ocessW. ars,r evolutions, and otherc alamitiesm ayc ausea n occasionals uddenb lip in the trendl ines,b ut theo verallp rocessi s not volatile.I fs ecularizatioins ther esulto fm odernization or,i ndeed,i s one aspecto fi t,t hens ecularizatioins notv olatilea nd,r athert han proceedingb ys uddenf itsa nd startsi,t too willd isplaya long-termg,r aduala,n d relativelyco nstantt rendo f religiouds ecline,c orrespondintgo similaru pward trendsin sucha spectso fm odernizatioans economicd evelopmentu,r banization, and education.I n termso f times eriest rendsm, odernizatioins a long,l inear, upwardc urve,a nd secularizatioins assumedt o tracet he reciprocaolf t hisc urve, to be a long,l ineard, ownwardcu rve.I ndeed,s incem odernizatioins s o advanced in manyn ationst hat" postmodernismis t"h el atestb uzzwordit, mustb e assumed thats ecularizationis at least" ongoingt" o the extentt hata significandto wn- wardt rendi n religiousnecssa n be seen. The secondt hingt o noticea boutt he secularizatiopnr opheciesis thatt hey are notd irectedp rimarilyto wardi nstitutionadli fferentiatio- n theyd o not merelyp redictt he separationo f churcha nd state or a decline in the direct, seculara uthoritoyf c hurchl eadersT. heirp rimarcyo ncerni s withi ndividupaile ty, especiallyb elief.T hus, Jeffersopnr edictedt he next generationw ould find Christianb eliefs,a nd especiallyf aithi n the divinityo fJ esus,i mplausiblean d would limit themselvest o the minimalistc onceptiono f God sustainedb y UnitariansW. hat mostc oncernedE ngelsw ere not bishops,b ut the religious "fantasieso"f t he masses.F reudw rotea boutr eligiouisl lusionsn, ota boutc hurch taxes,a nd Wallace (1966: 265) assertedt hat" beliefi n supernaturaplo wersi s doomed to die out, all over the world"b ecause,a s BryanW ilson (1975: 81) explained", The rationals tructuroef s ocietyi tselfp recludems uchi ndulgencein supernaturalitshti nking." This is verys ignificanbt ecause in recenty earss ecularizationh as been definedi n several ways (Hanson 1997; Tschannen 1991; Dobbelaere 1987; Shiner1 967) and, unfortunateltyh,i sp ermitsso mep roponentosf the thesist o shiftd efinitionass needed in ordere scape inconvenienft acts( cf.,D obbelaere 1987, 1997; Lechner1 991, 1996; Yamane 1997). One definitiono,f tenr eferred to as the macro version( cf., Lechner 1996), identifiesse cularizationas de- This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 252 SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION institutionalizat(Dioonb belaere1 987; Martin1 978). This refertso a decline in the social powero f once-dominanrte ligiousi nstitutionws herebyo thers ocial institutioness,p eciallyp oliticala nd educationali nstitutionhs,a ve escapedf rom priorr eligiouds omination. If thisw erea ll thats ecularizatiomn eans,t herew ouldb e nothingt o argue about.E veryonme usta greet hat,i n contemporarEyu ropef, ore xampleC, atholic bishopsh ave lessp oliticalp owert hant heyo nce possesseda,n d thes ame is true ofL utheranan d Anglicanb ishops( althoughb ishopsp robablyn everw eren early so powerfuals theyn ow are thoughtt o have been). Nor are primarays pectso f publicl ifea ny longers uffusewd ithr eligiouss ymbolsr, hetorico,r ritual.T hese changes have, of course, aroused scholarly interest,r esultingi n some distinguishedst udies (Casanova 1994; Martin 1978). But, the prophetso f secularizationth eoryw eren ot and are not merelyw ritingab outs omethingso obviouso r limited.A t issuei s not a narrowp redictionc oncerninga growing separationo f churcha nd state. Instead,a s we have seen, fromt he startt he prophetso f secularizationh ave stressedp ersonalp iety,a nd to the extentt hat theye xpressedm acroi nterestist has been to claimt hatt heya re so linkedt hata decline in one necessitateas decline in the other.T hus, ift he churchesl ose power,p ersonalp ietyw ill fade;i fp ersonalp ietyf ades,t he churchesw ill lose power.I ndeed,P eterB ergerl,o ngt he mosts ophisticatedm odernp roponento f the secularizatiotnh esis,w ase ntirelyca ndido n thisp oint.H avingo utlinedt he macroa spectso fs ecularizationB,e rger(1 967: 107-108)n oted: Moreoveirt, i s impliehde ret hatt hep rocesosf s ecularizatihoans a subjectivseid ea s wellA. s thereis a secularizatioofns ocietyan dc ultures,o thereis a secularizatioofnc onsciousness. Put simplyt,h ism eanst hatt he modemW esth as producedan increasinngu mbero f individuawls hol ooku pont hew orlda nd theiro wnl ivesw ithoutth eb enefiotf religious interpretations. As noted,r ecentlyB erger( 1997) gracefullyw ithdrewh is supportf ort he theoryo fs ecularizationI .c itet hisp assagef romh ise arlierw orkn ott o emphasize myp reviouds isagreemenwti thB ergerw, hosew orkI alwaysh ave mucha dmired, buta s a contrastt o the recentt acticb yo therp roponentosf s ecularizationw,h o seekt o evade theg rowingm ountaino fc ontraryev idenceb yp retendintgh att he theorym erelyp ertaints o deinstitutionalizatiaonnd anyt rendsin personapl iety are irrelevantL.e t me noteK arelD obbelaere'sb reathtakinegv asioni n his article in this issue," the religiousnesosf individualsis nota valid indicatori n eval- uatingt he processo f secularizationS."u ch revisionismis not onlyh istorically false,i t is insincereT. hose who employi t revertt o celebratingth e demiseo f individualp iety whenevert hey see a fact that seems to be supportiveo r whenevert heyb elieve theya re speakingt o an audience of fellowd evotees. Thus, at a conferencein Rome in 1993, Lilliane Voye and Karel Dobbelaere (1994: 95) explainedt hatb ecauses cience is "a thoroughlsye cularp erspective on the world"a nd has come to dominatet he educationalc urriculat, his has This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 253 SECULARIZATIONR,. I.P. resulteidn "desacriliztinhgec ontenotf l earninagn dt hew orld-vioefw studentCsi.t"i nega rlieerss aybsy D obbelaetrhee, wy enotn t oc laim: thes uccessfruelm ovbayl s ciencoef a llk indosf a nthropomorpfhriosmmous r t hinkinhgav e transformtheetd r aditiocnoanl cepotf " Goda sa personin" toa belieifn a life-forac peo,w er ofs piriatn dt hish asa lsog radualplryo motaegdn osticiasnmda theis-mw hich explaintsh e long-terdmec lineo fr eligioupsr actices. ExactlyT!h ati s precisewlyh att hes ecularizattiohne sihs asa lwaybse ena, nd Voyea ndD obbelaereem's piriccalla imsi,f t ruew, ouldf ullysa tisfWyo olston's prophe-s ya lbeita bitl ate.B uta, s willb e seeni,t i sn'tso .W hatis s o,i st hat secularizatpiorned icat ms arkedde clinien t her eligiousnoefst sh ei ndividual. Thet hirtdh ingto n oticaeb outt hes ecularizattiohne siiss t hati,m pliciint allv ersionans de xpliciitn m osti,s t hec laimth ato fa lla spectosf m odernization, iti ss ciencteh ath ast hem osdt eadlyim plicatiofnosrr eligionFo. rC omtaen d Wallacea,s forV oyea ndD obbelaeriet, i s sciencteh atw illf reeu sf romth e superstitifoeutst eorfsf aithO. r,i nt heo ddf ormulatbioynB ryaWn ilson(1 968: 86)," Christianiwtyit,ht hei mpacotf s cientifaincd s ociasl cientifhiicn dsights, hasl ostg eneratlh eologicpalla usibilitIyft .h" isis s o,t hens cientisotusg htto b e expectetdo b ea relativeilryr eligiolouts.B uta, sw ilbl es eens,c ientisatrsea bout as religiouass a nyoneel se,a ndt hep resumiendc ompatibibliettyw eerne ligion ands ciencsee emms ythical. Fourtshe,c ularizatiisor ne gardaesda na bsorbisntga t-e thato ncea chieved it is irreversibinles,t illinmgy sticiaml munitHyo.w everev, entasn dt rendisn easterEnu ropaen dt hen ationosf t hef ormSeorv ieUt niond on ots upportht ese expectatioInnss.t eadas, AndreGwr eele(y1 994:2 72)s oa ptlypu ti t,a ftemr ore than7 0 yearos fm ilitanetf forbtys t hes tatet o achieves ecularizati"oSnt,. Vladimhira sr outeKda rMl arx." Fiftahn df inallwy,h ilme osdt iscussioonfss ecularizatfiooncu osn C hristen- doma,l ll eadinpgr oponenotfts h et hesiasp plyit g loballTyh. usi,t i sn otm erely beliefin C hristth ati s "doometdo d ieo ut,b" uta, s Wallacee xplaineidn t he passagqe uoteda bove," belieifn supernatuproawl ersa,n" d thisi s goingt o happen" all over the world."H ence, Allah is fatedt o join Jehovaha s only" an interestinhgi storicaml emory.H" owevern, o one has botheredt o explaint hist o Muslimsa,s willb e seen. Now fors pecifics. THE MYTH OF RELIGIOUS DECLINE Manys cholarsa ppeart o believet hati fr ateso fi ndividuarl eligioubs eliefa nd participationfo rm ostn ationso f northernan d westernE uropew ereg raphed, theyw ouldb e reciprocatl o the trendsi n modernizationB.e ginningw ithh igh levels of faitha nd practicea t the end of the eighteenthc enturyt,h e master trendsa re assumedt o have been ever downward,c ulminatingi n veryl ow This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 254 SOCIOLOGYO F RELIGION currenlte velso fr eligiousneAssn. d thel atterar er egardeads buti nsignificant residualsso, ont od isappeatro o( Wilson1 966,1 982;B ruce1 995;L echner1 991, 1996).F ore videncein supporotf t hesec laimsw, ea red irectetdo notea steep declinei n churcha ttendancien mucho f Europea nd to inferf romt hisa n erosiono f individuafla itha s well,o n the groundtsh atp articipatioins low becauseo fa lacko ft heb eliefns eededt o motivataet tendancTe.h esev iewsa re wrongin a ll respects. DavidM artin( 1 965)w ast hef irscto ntemporasroyci ologisttor ejectth es ecu- larizatiotnh esiso utrighetv, enp roposintgh att hec oncepto fs ecularizatibone eliminatefdr omso cials cientifdicis coursoen theg roundtsh ati th ads erveodn ly ideologicaaln dp olemicalr,a thetrh ant heoreticaflu, nctionans db ecauset here wasn o evidencien favoro fa nyg eneraolr c onsisten"tsh ifftr oma religioupse r- iodi nh umanaf fairtso a secularp eriod("M artin1 991:4 65). And,a stoundinasg it mays eemt, hes ecularizatitohne sihs asb eeni nconsistewntit hp lainf actfs rom thev erys tartF. ore xampleh, avingn otedt hep opularitoyf t hes ecularization doctrinaem onge ighteenth-centpuhriylo sopherAsl,e xisd e Tocquevillet hen commented: Unfortunatthelefy a,c tbsy n om eanasc corwd ithth eitrh eorTyh. eraer ec ertaipno pulations in Europwe hoseu nbelieisf o nlye qualledb yt heirig noranacne dd ebasemenwth; ilein Americoan, eo ft hef reeasnt dm osetn lightenneadt ionins t hew orldth, ep eoplfeu lfwilli th fervaolrlt heo utwarddu tieosf r eligio([n1 840119 563: 19). In them oret han1 50y earssi nceT ocquevillme adet hoseo bservationnso,t onlyh as Americanr eligiousnensso t gone intod ecline,t he rateo f church membershaicpt uallyh asm oret hant reble(dF inkea ndS tark1 992),w hileo ther indiceos fc ommitmehnatv eh elds teadyor h aver isenm odestl(yG reeley1 989). Moreovera,l thoughth eA mericanca se continuetso offear devastatincgh al- lenget o thes ecularizatiodnoc trineit, f ailsi n Europet oo.F irstt,h ereh asb een no demonstralbolne g-terdmec linien Europeanre ligioupsa rticipatioGnr! anted, participatiopnr obablhya s variedf romti met o timei n responsteo profound sociald islocationssu cha s warsa nd revolutionbsu, tt hef arm orei mportant pointi st hatr eligioupsa rticipatiwona sv erylo wi nn ortherann dw esterEnu rope manyce nturiebse forteh eo nseto fm odernization. The secondr easont o rejectc laimsa boutt hes ecularizatioofnE uropeis t hat currendta tad o notr eveatl hea rrivaolf a n ageo f" scientifaitch eismL."e velos f subjectirveel igiousnreesms ainh igh- to classifay nationa s highlyse cularized whent hel argem ajoritoyf i tsi nhabitanbtes lievei n God is absurdI.n deedt,h e importaqnute stionab outr eligioinn E uropeis ,a s GraceD avie( 1990b:3 95) put it, notw hyd o peoplen o longerb elieveb, utw hyd o they" persisitn believing buts ee no needt o participatwei the venm inimarle gularitiny t heirr eligious institutionOs?f" t heset wom ajorb asesf orr ejectincgl aimsa boutt hes ecular- izationo fE uropet,h ec laimt hatr eligioupsa rticipatiowna sn everv eryh ighi n northerann dw esterEnu ropeis t heo net hatm usstt rikme ostr eaderass dubious. This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SECULARIZATIONR, .I.P. 255 THE MYTHO F PAST PIETY Everyon"ek nowst"h ato nce upona timet hew orldw asp ious- thati n oldend aysm ostp eoplee xhibitelde velso fr eligioupsr acticaen dc oncernt hat todayli ngeorn lyi n isolatedso cials ubculturseusc ha s theA mishu, ltra-orthodox Jewso,r M uslimf undamentaliBstust. ,l ikes o manyo nce-upon-a-titmalee st, his conceptiono f a piousp asti s meren ostalgiam; ostp rominenhti storianosf medievarl eligionn owa greet hatt heren everw asa n "Ageo fF aith"( Morris 1993;D uffy1 992;S ommervill1e9 92;B ossy1 985;O belkevich1 979;M urray 1972;T homas1 971; Coulton1 938). Writingin the eleventhc enturyt,h e Englishm onkW illiamo fM almesburcyom plainetdh att hea ristocracryar ely attendecdh urchan de vent hem orep iousa mongth em" attendedm" assa t home, inb ed: Theyd idn'tg o to churchin t hem orningins a Christiafna shionb;u ti n theirb edchambers, lyingin thea rmso f theirw ivest, heyd idb utt astew itht heire arst hes olemnitioesf t he morninmg assr ushetdh rougbhy a priesitn a hurr(yin Fletche1r9 97:4 76). As fort heo rdinarpye opled, urintgh em iddlaeg esa ndd urintgh eR enaissance, the massesr arelyen tereda churcha,n d theirp rivatew orshipw as directed towarda n arrayo f spiritsa nd supernaturaagl encies,o nlys ome of them recognizabClyh ristian(G entilecor1e9 92;S chneider1 990;D elumeau1 977; Thomas1 971).A lexandeMr urraya'sss essmenoftm edievaIlt alianr eligioulsif e is typical":s ubstantisael ctionos f thirteenth-centsuorciye tyh ardlyat tended churchat all."T he Dominicanp riorH umberotf R omansin hish andbookO n theT eachinogf P reacherMs,u rranyo tesa, dvisedh isf riartsh at" reachintgh el aity involvecsa tchintgh ema t marketans dt ournamenitnss ,h ipsa,n ds o on,"w hich Murrayin terpreatss "a faire noughs ignt hatt heyw eren ot to be caughti n churchesI."n deedH, umberftr anklayck nowledgtehda tt hem asse"sr arelgyo to churcha,n d[ whent heyd o attendr]a reltyo sermonsso; theyk nowl ittleo fw hat pertaintso theirs alvation.F"i nallyH, umberatd mittetdh att her egulacrl ergy weres o involvedi n gamblingp,l easurea,n d "worset hings,t"h att heyt oo "scarcelyco me to church."I n similart ermsB, lessedG iordanoo f Rivalto reportetdh at,u pona rrivinign Florencet o preachh, e suggestetdo a local womant hats het akeh erd aughtetro churchat leasto n feastd ays,o nlyt o be informetdh at" It is not thec ustom("M urray1 972:9 2-94).T he anonymous Englishau thoro fD ivesa ndP auper([ circa1 41011 976:1 89) complainetdh at "thep eoplet hesed ays.. . arel oatht oh earG od'sS ervice[.A ndw hent heym ust attendt]h eyc omel atea ndl eavee arlyT. heyw ouldr athegro t oa tavernth ant o HolyC hurch."I1n about1 430,S t.A ntonin(oi n Coulton1 938:1 92)w rotteh at 1 Myt ranslatiforno mM iddleE nglish. This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 256 SOCIOLOGYO F RELIGION Tuscanp easantsse ldomat tendm assa ndt hat" verym anyo ft hemd o notc onfess once a year,a nd farf ewera re thosew ho takec ommunion. . . . Theyu se enchantmenftosrt hemselvaens df ort heirb easts . . beingi gnoranatn, dc aring littlef ort heiro wns oulso rf ork eepinGg od'sc ommandmenwths,i cht heyk now not."A ntoninow ento n to blamem osto f thiso n "thec arelessneassn d evil consciencoef t heirp arishp riests." In furthesru pporotf t heser eportasn, extensivseu rveyof s urvivinpga rish churcheisn varioups artso fE uroper evealst hemt o be too smallt o haveh eld moret hana tinyf ractionof local inhabitant(sB rookea nd Brooke1 984). Indeedi,t w asn'ut ntitl hel atem iddlaeg est hatt hereev enw erem oret hana few parishch urcheosu tsidoe ft hec itiesa ndl argetro wns(n otc ountintgh ep rivate chapelsm aintainefdo rt hel ocaln obilitya)t, a timew henn earlyev eryonleiv ed in ruraal reas( Morris1 993). Moreovera,s EamonD uffnyo teda, largep ercen- tageo f whatr uralp arisheds id existl ackeda pastorm ucho f the time.H e estimatetdh atd uringth es ixteentche nturyfo, re xamplea,t least2 5 percenotf thep arisheisn t heD ioceseo fS trasbourang du pt o 80 percenitn t heD ioceseo f Genevah ad no clergyT. o makem atterws orse,e ven wheret herew as an assignepda stor",A bsenteeiswma sr ife("D uffy19 87:8 8). The bishopv'si sitation of 192p arisheisn Oxfordshidruer ing1 520f ound5 8 absentee(sC oulton1 938: 156). IndeedP, .H. Sawyer(1 982: 139) notedt hati n northerEnu rope" Bishops whon everv isitedt heirs eesw eren otu nknownI."n deed,m anys uchd ioceses wereg ivent op apalp rotegewsi thouatn yo bligatiotno r eside(C oulton1 938). That religioups articipatiown as lackinge ven in the citiesi s not very surprisinwgh enw e realizet hatg oingt o churchin ,s ay,t hef ifteentchen tury, requiretdh ea veragep ersont o standi n an unheatebdu ildintgo heara service whichw asc onducteedn tirelyin incomprehensiLbalet inb yp riestws hom ay indeedn oth ave beens peakingL atina t all, butm anyo fw homw eres imply mumblinngo nsenssey llableTs.h e VenerablBee de( [73011 955:3 40) advisedth e futurbei shopE gbertth atb ecauses o fewE nglishp riestasn d monkks newa ny Latin" I havef requentolyff eretdr anslatioonfsb otht he[ Apostle'Cs]r eeda nd theL ord'sP rayeirn toE nglishto manyu nlearnepdr iests.I"n 1222t heC ouncil of Oxfordd escribedth e parishc lergyas "dumbd ogs"( Coulton1 938: 157). Almosta thousanyd earsa fterB ede'se fforttos teachc lergyat leastt heL ord's Prayern,o thinhga dc hangedW. illiamT yndalne otedi n 1530t hath ardlyan yo f thep riestasn d curateisn Englandk newt heL ord'sP rayeorr c ouldt ranslatiet intoE nglishT. his was confirmewd heni n 1551 the Bishopo f Gloucester systematicatlelyst edh isd iocesanc lergyO. f 311 pastors1,7 1c ouldn otr epeat theT en Commandmenatnsd 27 didn otk nowt hea uthoro ft heL ord'sP rayer (Thomas1 971: 164). Indeed,t hen exty earB ishopH ooperf ound" scoreos f parishc lergyw hoc ouldn ot tellw how ast hea uthoro ft heL ord'sP rayero,r whereit w ast ob e found("C oulton1 938:1 58).A crosts hec hannelS,t .V incent de Pauld iscovereidn 1617t hath is localp rieskt newn o Latin,n ote vent he wordos fa bsolutio(nD elumeau1 977).S imilarlyin, 1547A rchbishoGpi ovanni This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SECULARIZATIONR, .I.P. 257 Bovio,o ft he Brindisi-Ordiiao cesei n southerInt aly,f oundt hatm osto fh is priest"sc ouldb arelyr eada nd couldn otu nderstanLda tin"( Gentilcor1e9 92: 42). Clericali gnorancies not surprisinwgh enw e recognizteh at" therew ere virtuallnyo seminarieasn" dt herefomreo stp riest"sl earnerdu bricasn" da "smat- teringof L atin"a s an apprenticteo "a prieswt hoh ad himselhfa d littleo r no trainingI."n thef ifteentchen turyS,t .'Bernardinoof S iena observeda priest "whok newo nlyt heH ail Marya,n du sedi t evena t thee levationof t heM ass" (Duffy19 87:8 8). EamonD uffy(1 992) has effectivedleym onstrattehde i gnor- anceo ft hep arishcl ergyfr omth ec ontentosf t hev eryf irs"tp rimerfso"r c lergy thatb egant o be distributeind thef ourteentahn d fifteentchen turiesT. hat bookletsm, osto ft hemw ritteinn thel ocall anguagrea thetrh ani n Latina nd preparefdo rt hosew hoa lreadyw eres ervinags clergyw, erel imitetdo them ost elementaraysp ectso fd octrinaen dp ractic-e fore xamples,i mpleli stso ft he sacramentasn d of the sinst hats houldb e confessed- showst hatc hurch officiatlsh oughmt osts ervincgl ergyk newc onsiderablleys st hana modern10 - year-oladt tendinpga rochiaslc hool. Givens uchc lericailg noranciet, i s no wondetrh att hem asseks newn extt o nothingin termos fb asicC hristiacnu ltureT. he LateranC ouncilo f 1215,i n additionto requirinagll Catholicst o confesasn d to takec ommunioant least once a yeard uringt he Easters eason,p roposedth ata massivec ampaigno f elementarryel igiouins structioofnt hel aityb e undertakeTnh. us,a t theC ouncil of Lambethin 1281,t he Englishb ishopsr espondebdy a doptingt hea imo f teachintgh el aityt heL ord'sP rayerH,a il Marya,n dt heA postle'Cs reed.L ater thisw ase xpandedt o includet heT en Commandmentths,e S evenW orkso f Mercyt,h eS evenS acramentasn, dt heS evenD eadlyS ins( Duffy19 92).S imilar planst oc atechizteh el aityw erea doptedth roughoEuutr opeD. espitet hesev ery modesgto alsi,t s eemsu nlikeltyh atm anyo ft hel aityo,t hert hanm emberosf t he educatedel ite,e verm asteretdh eses implele sson-s sinces o manyp riestdsi d not.A s ColinM orri(s1 993: 232) puti t," Ignorancoef t hef ormaclo ntenot f faithw asg eneral.M" orritsh enr ecounteadn instancoe fa villagep riestw ho managetdo teachm anyin h isc ongregatioton r ecitet he" OurF atheri"n Latin, notingth att heyh adn ott hes lightesidt eao fw hati t meant(p ossibltyh ep riest didn'te ither)O. there xamplecso mef romin vestigatioonfss coreso fi ncidents involvinrge ligiouasp parition(ms ostloyf M aryi) n Spaind urintgh ef ourteenth andf ifteenctehn turieTsh. eseh earingrse vealetdh atm ostp arishionerresp orting suchv isionws erei gnoranotf t heT en Commandmenatnsd theS evenD eadly Sins. It wasn'tm erelyth att heyc ouldn ot recitet hem,b ut thatt heyw ere entirelyig noranotf theirc ontentsA. typicailn stancein volveda manw ho claimedf requenvti sionos fM arya ndw ho,d urinagn interrogatiionn 1 518,w as askedi fh e knewt heT en Commandmenantsd t heS evenD eadlyS ins." He said he didn otk nowan yo ft hesein w holoe ri np art.. . . He wasa skedif p ridoer envyo rl usto rk illinag mano ri nsultinsgo meonwe itho ffensiwveo rdws asa sin, This content downloaded from 134.139.29.9 on Sun, 11 Aug 2013 15:27:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

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content in a trusted digital archive anthropologist . of spirit and this has also gradually promoted agnosticism and atheism . Holy Church."1 .. for example, often involved little more than the baptism of the . are based on subjective measures of faith (Stark and lannaccone 1994; Stark 1998a).
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