Section 504 and the ADA

153 Pages·2008·1.95 MB·English

by  Charles J. Russo

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To our wonderful wives,
the two Debbies,
With all of our love, always and forever,
Charlie and Allan
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Copyright©2009byCorwinPress
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Russo,CharlesJ.
Section504andtheADA/CharlesJ.RussoandAllanG.Osborne,Jr.
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1. Childrenwithdisabilities—Education—Lawandlegislation—UnitedStates.
I. Osborne,AllanG. II. Title.
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Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii
About the Authors xvii
1. Introduction: Education and the American Legal System 1
Key Concepts in This Chapter 1
Introduction 1
Sources of Law 3
Constitutions 3
Statutes and Regulations 4
Common Law 5
Court Systems 5
Finding Legal Materials 8
History 9
Exclusionary Practices 9
Civil Rights Movement 10
Equal Educational Opportunity Movement 11
ANew Era for Students With Disabilities 12
The Right to an Appropriate Education Delineated 12
Landmark Litigation 13
Other Significant Cases 14
Legislative Response to PARC and Mills 17
Recommendations 18
References 20
2. Antidiscrimination Legislation: An Overview of
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and
the Americans With Disabilities Act 21
Key Concepts in This Chapter 21
Introduction 21
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Section 504 of the RehabilitationAct 23
Individual With a Disability Defined 23
Otherwise Qualified Explained 24
Requirement to Provide Reasonable
Accommodations 25
Application of Section 504 to Parents
and Others WhoAccess a School 26
Americans With DisabilitiesAct 26
ADA’s Definition of Individual With a Disability 27
Exceptions 27
Five Titles of theADA 27
Similarities Between Section 504 and the ADA 28
Summary 28
Recommendations 29
References 30
3. Students 31
Key Concepts in This Chapter 31
Introduction 31
Students in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools 33
ProhibitionAgainst Discrimination 33
Definition of Disability 36
Otherwise Qualified Students With Disabilities 38
ReasonableAccommodations 39
Appropriate Education 40
Athletics 43
Testing Accommodations 43
Undue Burden 46
Section 504/ADAService Plans 47
Students in Nonpublic Schools 48
Admissions Examinations/Standards 50
Students in Higher Education 52
Discriminatory Practices Prohibited 52
Disability 53
Otherwise Qualified Students With Disabilities 55
ReasonableAccommodations 56
Summary 58
Recommendations for Practice 59
References 62
4. Employees 65
Key Concepts in This Chapter 65
Introduction 65
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Discrimination Claims 67
Differential Treatment 67
Impairments Not Covered 68
Mitigation of Impairments 69
DisciplinaryAction 70
Otherwise Qualified Individuals With Disabilities 70
Essential Job Functions 70
Reassignments 71
Failure to Meet Prerequisite Requirements 72
Poor Performance and Misconduct 74
ReasonableAccommodations 75
Accommodating Physical Challenges 75
Accommodating Disease and Illness 77
Reassignments 78
Relief Denied 79
Summary 80
Recommendations for Practice 81
References 82
5. Parents and the General Public 85
Key Concepts in This Chapter 85
Introduction 85
Applicable Provisions of Section 504 and theADA 86
Public Entities 86
PublicAccommodations 87
Private Institutions 87
Parents 87
General Public 89
Summary 91
Recommendations for Practice 92
References 93
6. Defenses, Immunities, and Remedies 95
Key Concepts in This Chapter 95
Introduction 95
Defenses 96
EleventhAmendment Immunity 97
Sovereign Immunity Under Section 504 98
Sovereign Immunity Under theADA 99
Effect on StateAgencies and School Boards 102
Damages 102
Individual Defendants 103
Attorney Fees 104
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Exhaustion of IDEAAdministrative Remedies 105
Statute of Limitations 107
Summary 109
Recommendations for Practice 110
References 111
Appendix 1: Useful Education Law Web Sites 115
Appendix 2: Department of Special
Education Web Sites, by State 117
Index 121
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Preface
SECTION 504 OFTHE REHABILITATION ACT
OF 1973 ANDTHE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES
ACT: IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
WhyWeWroteThis Book
Americans who are accustomed to living in a world where inequities
in schooling and broader society on the basis of race, gender, and disabil-
ity have largely been eliminated can easily lose sight of what life was like
inthenotsodistantpast.Forexample,in1969,15yearsaftertheSupreme
Court’s monumental decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ended
state-sanctionedsegregationduetoraceinpublicschools,NeilArmstrong
became the first human to walk on the moon, thereby generating a tech-
nologicalrevolutionthatledtosuchdevelopmentsastheInternet,e-mail,
and a host of other advancements. Yet, about one-half ofAmerican states
hadlawsdenyingequaleducational,andother,opportunitiestoindividu-
alswithdisabilities.Evenso,changewasonthehorizonasaresultoftwo
cases that were litigated in federal trial courts and that had a profound
impact on the rights of individuals with disabilities.
Thefirstcase,PennsylvaniaAssociationforRetardedChildrenv.Common-
wealth of Pennsylvania (PARC) was initiated on behalf of a class of all indi-
viduals who were mentally retarded who were excluded from public
schools.RulinginfavoroftheplaintiffsinPARC,afederaltrialcourtheld
that no child who was mentally retarded or thought to be mentally
retarded could be assigned to a special education program or excluded
from the public schools without due process. The court added that school
systems in Pennsylvania had to provide all children who were mentally
retarded with a free appropriate public education and training programs
appropriate to their capacities.
The second case, Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia
(Mills),extendedthesamerighttootherclassesofstudentswithdisabilities,
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