Table Of Content1800-1899
V O L U M E
5
Understanding the
Social Significance of
Scientific Discovery
Science
and
Its
Times
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1800-1899
Neil Schlager, Editor
V O L U M E
5
Understanding the
Social Significance of
Scientific Discovery
Science
and
Its
Times
NEIL SCHLAGER, Editor
JOSH LAUER, Associate Editor
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Science
and Its
Times
5
Contents
(cid:1)
John C.Fremont and Exploration of the
American West
Robert McClure Discovers the Elusive
Northwest Passage
David Livingstone Traverses the African
Continent
Robert O’Hara Burke Traverses the Australian
Continent from North to South
Exploration of the Nile River:A Journey of
Discovery and Imperialism
The Nain Singh Expeditions Describe Tibet
Exploration and Discovery
The Discovery of Troy
Deep-Sea Exploration:The HMS
Expedition
Henry Morton Stanley Circumnavigates
Africa’s Lake Victoria and Explores the
Humboldt and Bonpland’s Landmark
Entire Length of the Congo River
Expedition to the Spanish Colonies of
South America (1799-1804) Nikolay Przhevalsky and Russian Expansion:
The Exploration of Central and East
The Discovery of Australia and Tasmania
Asia
Greatly Expands the British Empire
American Far West:The Lewis and Clark Luigi Maria D’Albertis Explores Unknown
Expedition Interior Regions of New Guinea
Zebulon Pike and the Conquest of the Nils A.E.Nordenskiöld Discovers the
Southwestern United States Northeast Passage
The Temples at Abu Simbel A Race Around the World
The Rosetta Stone:The Key to Ancient
Egypt
James Clark Ross and the Discovery of the
Magnetic North Pole
The Voyage of the HMS
Robert H.Schomburgk Explores the Interior Life Sciences
of British Guyana,Brazil,and Venezuela
and Is the First European to Visit Mount
Roraima
Edward Eyre Explores the South and Western
Territories of the Australian Interior and Johann Blumenbach and the Classification of
Helps Open the Territories to the Transport Human Races
of Goods and Animals Population Theory:Malthus’s Influence on the
The Wilkes Expedition and the Discovery of Scope of Evolution
Antarctica Invertebrate Zoology,Lamarckism,and Their
The Buried Cities of Assyria Influences on the Sciences and on Society
(cid:1)
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. . . . . . . . . . . 33 . 110
Chronology of Key Events Challenger
Overview
Topical Essays
Biographical Sketches
Biographical Mentions
Bibliography of Primary Sources
Beagle
Chronology of Key Events
Overview
Topical Essays
S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 5
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Advisory Board. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Introduction: 1800-1899 . . . . . . . . xvii
Chronology: 1800-1899 . . . . . . . . . xxi
v
Advances in Plant Classification and Topology:The Mathematics of Form
Contents
Morphology The Rise of Probabilistic and Statistical
Georges Cuvier Revolutionizes Thinking
Paleontology Solving Quintic Equations
Watching as Life Begins:The Discovery of the Advances in Logic during the Nineteenth
Mammalian Ovum and the Process of Century
Fertilization Set Theory and the Sizes of Infinity
John James Audubon Publishes His Illustrated Development of Higher-Dimensional
(1827-1838). Algebraic Concepts
Energy Metabolism in Animals and Plants George Green Makes the First Attempt to
Advances in Cell Theory Formulate a Mathematical Theory of
The Agricultural Sciences Flourish and Electricity and Magnetism (1828)
Contribute to the Growing Size,Health, Advances in Understanding Celestial
and Wealth of Western Nations Mechanics
Cell Division and Mitosis A New Realm of Numbers
Evolution,Natural and Sexual Selection,and George Boole and the Algebra of Logic
Their Influences on the Sciences The Promotion of Mathematical Research
Social Darwinism Emerges and Is Used to
Nineteenth-Century Efforts to Promote
Justify Imperialism,Racism,and Conservative
Mathematics Education from Grade School
Economic and Social Policies
to the University Level
Louis Pasteur’s Battle with Microbes and the
The Return of Rigor to Mathematics
Founding of Microbiology
The Specialization of Mathematics and the
Gregor Mendel Discovers the Basic Laws
Rise of Formalism
of Heredity while Breeding Pea Plants
Codification and Employment of the Principle
(1866)
of Mathematical Induction
Ferdinand Cohn and the Development of
Elliptic Functions Lay the Foundations for
Modern Bacteriology
Modern Physics
The Discovery of Viruses
Middle-Class Victorian Men and Women
Collect,Identify,and Preserve Plant and
Animal Species,Broadening Human
Knowledge of the Natural World and
Transforming Biology into a Mature
Medicine
Science
Scientists in Europe and the United States Lay
the Foundation for the Modern Science
of Ecology
Neanderthals and the Search for Human René Laënnec Revolutionizes the Diagnosis of
Ancestors Chest Diseases with His Invention of the
Stethoscope
Human Digestion Studied by William
Beaumont,Theodor Schwann,Claude
Bernard,and William Prout
The Establishment of Schools for the
Disabled
Mathematics
Medical Education for Women during the
Nineteenth Century
Cholera Epidemics:Five Pandemics in the
Nineteenth Century
Fourier Analysis and Its Impact Modern Anesthesia Is Developed
The Development of Number Theory during Antiseptic and Aseptic Techniques Are
the Nineteenth Century Developed
Projective Geometry Leads to the Unification Birth of the Nursing Profession
of All Geometries Koch’s Postulates:Robert Koch Demonstrates
The Shape of Space:The Beginning of That a Particular Organism Causes a
Non-Euclidean Geometry Particular Disease
(cid:1)
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
. . . . . . . . . . 201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
1800-1899
Birds ofAmerica
Biographical Sketches
Biographical Mentions
Bibliography of Primary Sources
Chronology of Key Events
Overview
Topical Essays
Biographical Sketches
Biographical Mentions
Bibliography of Primary Sources
Chronology of Key Events
Overview
Topical Essays
S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 5
vi
The Battle against Tuberculosis:Robert Koch, The Replacement of Caloric Theory by a
Contents
the Development of TB Sanitariums,and the Mechanical Theory of Heat
Enactment of Public Health Measures Nineteenth-Century Advances in the
Deviancy to Mental Illness:Nineteenth- Mathematical Theory and Understanding
Century Developments in the Care of the of Sound
Mentally Ill Leverrier,Adams,and the Mathematical
The Development of New Systems of Discovery of Neptune
Alternative Medicine:Homeopathy, Heavenly Rocks:Asteroids Discovered and
Osteopathy,Chiropractic Medicine,and Meteorites Explained
Hydrotherapy Nineteenth-Century Developments in
Tropical Disease in the Nineteenth Century Measuring the Locations and Distances of
Nineteenth-Century Biological Theories on Celestial Bodies
Race A New View of the Universe:Photography and
Western Missionaries Spread Western Spectroscopy in Nineteenth-Century
Medicine Around the World Astronomy
Nineteenth-Century Views of the Female Body Nineteenth-Century Efforts to Catalog Stars
and Their Impact on Women in Society John Dalton Proposes His Atomic Theory
Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century Britain and and Lays the Foundation of Modern
America Chemistry
The Birth of a Profession:Dentistry in the Development of Physical Chemistry during the
Nineteenth Century Nineteenth Century
Medicine in Warfare in the Nineteenth Finding Order among the Elements
Century Nineteenth-Century Advances in
Modern Surgery Developed Understanding Gases,Culminating in
Nineteenth-Century Developments Related to William Ramsey’s Discovery of Inert Gases
Sight and the Eye in the 1890s
The Study of Human Heredity and Eugenics Elaboration of the Elements:Nineteenth-
during the Nineteenth Century,Focusing Century Advances in Chemistry,
on the Work of Francis Galton Electrochemistry,and Spectroscopy
The Field of Public Health Emerges in French Mineralogist René Just Haüy Founds
Response to Epidemic Diseases the Science of Crystallography with the
Publication of
William Smith Uses Fossils to Determine the
Order of the Strata in England and Helps
Develop the Science of Stratigraphy
Charles Lyell Publishes
Physical Sciences (1830-33),in Which He Proposes
the Actual Age of Earth to be Several
Hundred Million Years.
The Discovery of Global Ice Ages by Louis
Agassiz
Revival of the Wave Theory of Light in the
Women Scientists in the Nineteenth-Century
Early Nineteenth Century
Physical Sciences
Nineteenth-Century Development of the
The Transformation of the Physical Sciences
Concept of Energy
into Professions During the Nineteenth
The Michelson-Morley Experiment,the
Century
Luminiferous Ether,and Precision
Measurement
Heinrich Hertz Produces and Detects Radio
Waves in 1888
The Discovery of Radioactivity:Gateway to
Twentieth-Century Physics
J.J.Thomson,the Discovery of the Electron, Technology and Invention
and the Study of Atomic Structure
Unification:Nineteenth-Century Advances in
Electromagnetism
(cid:1)
. . . . . . . . . 413
. . . 308
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
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. . 317
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. . . . . . . . 322 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
. 428
. . 324
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
. . . . . . 436
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
. . . . . . . 340 . . . . . 441
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 . . . . . . . . . 503
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. . . . . 408 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
1800-1899
Treatise ofMineralogy
Biographical Sketches
Biographical Mentions
Bibliography of Primary Sources
The Principles of
Geology
Chronology of Key Events
Overview
Topical Essays
Biographical Sketches
Biographical Mentions
Bibliography of Primary Sources
Chronology of Key Events
Overview
Topical Essays
S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 5
vii
French Inventor Jacquard Produces a Weaving American Edwin L.Drake Drills the First Oil
Contents
Loom Controlled by Punch Cards (1801), Well (1859)
Facilitating the Mechanized Mass Production The Internal Combustion Engine
of Textiles;the Punch Card System Also The Mass Production of Death:Richard Jordan
Influences Early Computers in the 1940s Gatling Invents the Gatling Gun and Sir
and 1950s Hiram Maxim Invents the Maxim Machine
Steam-Powered Railroad Systems Make Gun
Possible the Industrial Revolution and The Development of the Automatic Writing
Fundamentally Alter the Transportation Machine:The Typewriter
of Goods and People Alexander Graham Bell Patents the First
Advances in Food Preservation Lead to New Telephone (1876)
Products,New Markets,and New Sources Artificial Gas and Electrical Lighting Systems
of Food Production Are Developed That Change Living and
The Steamboat:First Instrument of Work Patterns
Imperialism Use of Electric Power Becomes Widespread
The Communication Revolution:Developments Elegant Spans:Suspension Bridges
in Mass Publishing during the Nineteenth The Invention of Automobiles
Century Quest for Sound:Thomas Edison’s
Advances in Photography during the Nineteenth Phonograph
Century Herman Hollerith’s Punched Card
Cyrus McCormick Invents the Reaping Tabulating Machine Automates the 1890
Machine U.S.Census
Samuel Morse and the Telegraph Capturing Life Onscreen:The Invention of
Motion Pictures
Charles Goodyear Discovers the Process for
The First Subways
Creating Vulcanized Rubber
Safe Enough to Kill:Advances in the
Invention of the Sewing Machine
Chemistry of Explosives
Elisha Graves Otis Produces the First Passenger
Elevator with Safety Locks,Facilitating the
Growth of High-Rise Buildings
English Inventor Henry Bessemer Develops
Process to Produce Inexpensive Steel
The Advent of Mechanical Refrigeration
Alters Daily Life and National Economies
throughout the World
(cid:1)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
. . . . . . . . 542
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
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. . . . . . . . . . . 572
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
. . . . . . . 532 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
. . . . . . . . . 611
. . . . 535
. . . . . . . . . . . . 537
1800-1899
Biographical Sketches
Biographical Mentions
Bibliography of Primary Sources
S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 5
General Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . 613
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
viii
Preface
(cid:1)
The interaction of science and society is Volume 1: 2000 B.C.-699 A.D.
increasingly a focal point of high school Volume 2: 700-1449
studies, and with good reason: by explor-
Volume 3: 1450-1699
ing the achievements of science within their his-
Volume 4: 1700-1799
torical context, students can better understand a
given event, era, or culture. This cross-discipli- Volume 5: 1800-1899
nary approach to science is at the heart of Sci- Volume 6: 1900-1949
ence and Its Times.
Volume 7: 1950-present
Readers of Science and Its Times will find a
comprehensive treatment of the history of sci- Dividing the history of science according to
ence, including specific events, issues, and trends such strict chronological subsets has its own
through history as well as the scientists who set drawbacks. Many scientific events—and scien-
in motion—or who were influenced by—those tists themselves—overlap two different time
events. From the ancient world’s invention of the periods. Also, throughout history it has been
plowshare and development of seafaring vessels; common for the impact of a certain scientific
to the Renaissance-era conflict between the advancement to fall much later than the
Catholic Church and scientists advocating a sun- advancement itself. Readers looking for informa-
centered solar system; to the development of tion about a topic should begin their search by
modern surgery in the nineteenth century; and checking the index at the back of each volume.
to the mass migration of European scientists to Readers perusing more than one volume may
the United States as a result of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi find the same scientist featured in two different
regime in Germany during the 1930s and 1940s, volumes.
science’s involvement in human progress—and
Readers should also be aware that many sci-
sometimes brutality—is indisputable.
entists worked in more than one discipline dur-
While science has had an enormous impact ing their lives. In such cases, scientists may be
on society, that impact has often worked in the featured in two different chapters in the same
opposite direction, with social norms greatly volume. To facilitate searches for a specific per-
influencing the course of scientific achievement son or subject, main entries on a given person or
through the ages. In the same way, just as history subject are indicated by bold-faced page num-
can not be viewed as an unbroken line of ever- bers in the index.
expanding progress, neither can science be seen
Within each volume, material is divided
as a string of ever-more amazing triumphs. Science
into chapters according to subject area. For vol-
and Its Timesaims to present the history of science
umes 5, 6, and 7, these areas are: Exploration
within its historical context—a context marked
and Discovery, Life Sciences, Mathematics, Med-
not only by genius and stunning invention but
icine, Physical Sciences, and Technology and
also by war, disease, bigotry, and persecution.
Invention. For volumes 1, 2, 3, and 4, readers
will find that the Life Sciences and Medicine
Format of the Series
chapters have been combined into a single sec-
Science and Its Times is divided into seven tion, reflecting the historical union of these dis-
volumes, each covering a distinct time period: ciplines before 1800.
(cid:1)
S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 5
ix
Arrangement of Volume 5: 1800-1899 Bibliography of Primary Source Doc-
Preface uments: These annotated bibliograph-
Volume 5 begins with two notable sections
ic listings feature key books and articles
in the frontmatter: a general introduction to
pertaining to the subject area.
nineteenth-century science and society, and a
general chronology that presents key scientific Following the final chapter are two additional
events during the period alongside key world sections: a general bibliography of sources related
historical events. to nineteenth-century science, and a general sub-
ject index. Readers are urged to make heavy use of
The volume is then organized into six chap-
the index, because many scientists and topics are
ters, corresponding to the six subject areas listed
discussed in several different entries.
above in “Format of the Series.” Within each
chapter, readers will find the following entry A note should be made about the arrange-
types: ment of individual entries within each chapter:
while the long and short biographical sketches
Chronology of Key Events: Notable
are arranged alphabetically according to the sci-
events in the subject area during the
entist’s surname, the topical essays lend them-
nineteenth century are featured in this
selves to no such easy arrangement. Again, read-
section.
ers looking for a specific topic should consult
the index. Readers wanting to browse the list of
Overview: This essay provides an
essays in a given subject area can refer to the
overview of important trends, issues,
table of contents in the book’s frontmatter.
and scientists in the subject area during
the nineteenth century.
Additional Features
Topical Essays: Ranging between
Throughout each volume readers will find
1,500 and 2,000 words, these essays
sidebars whose purpose is to feature interesting
discuss notable events, issues, and
events or issues that otherwise might be over-
trends in a given subject area. Each
looked. These sidebars add an engaging element to
essay includes a Further Reading sec-
the more straightforward presentation of science
tion that points users to additional
and its times in the rest of the entries. In addition,
sources of information on the topic,
the volume contains photographs, illustrations,
including books, articles, and web sites.
and maps scattered throughout the chapters.
Biographical Sketches: Key scientists
during the era are featured in entries Comments and Suggestions
ranging between 500 and 1,000 words
Your comments on this series and sugges-
in length.
tions for future editions are welcome. Please
Biographical Mentions: Additional write: The Editor, Science and Its Times, Gale
brief biographical entries on notable Group, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills,
scientists during the era. MI 48331.
(cid:1)
1800-1899
S C I E N C E A N D I T S T I M E S V O L U M E 5
x
