Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering

506 Pages·1965·6.38 MB·English

by  Joseph Needham

THE PICTURE OF THE TAOIST GENII PRINTED ON THE COVER
of this book is part of a painted temple scroll, recent but traditional, given to
Mr Brian Harland in Szechuan province (1946). Concerning these four divinities,
of respectable rank in the Taoist bureaucracy, the following particulars have been
handed down. The title of the first of the four signifies 'Heavenly Prince', that
of the other three ' Mysterious Commander'.
At the top, on the left, is Liu Thien Chiln, Comptroller-General of Crops and
Weather. Before his deification (so it was said) he was a rain-making magician
and weather forecaster named Liu Chiin, born in the Chin dynasty about + 340•
Among his attributes may be seen the sun and moon, and a measuring-rod or
carpenter's square. The two great luminaries imply the making of the calendar, so
important for a primarily agricultural society, the efforts, ever renewed, to reconcile
celestial periodicities. The carpenter's square is no ordinary tool, but the gnomon
for measuring the lengths of the sun's solstitial shadows. The Comptroller-General
also carries a bell because in ancient and medieval times there was thought to be
a close connection between calendrical calculations and the arithmetical acoustics
of bells and pitch-pipes.
At the top, on the right, is Wen Yuan Shuai, Intendant of the Spiritual Officials
of the Sacred Mountain, Thai Shan. He was taken to be an incarnation of one of
the Hour-Presidents (Chia Shen), i.e. tutelary deities of the twelve cyclical characters
(see p. 440). During his earthly pilgrimage his name was Huan Tzu-YU and he was
a scholar and astronomer in the Later Han (b. + 142). He is seen holding an
armillary ring.
Below, on the left, is Kou Yuan Shuai, Assistant Secretary of State in the Ministry
of Thunder. He is therefore a late emanation of a very ancient god, Lei Kung.
Before he became deified he was Hsin Hsing, a poor woodcutter, but no doubt an
incarnation of the spirit of the constellation Kou-Chhen (the Angular Arranger),
part of the group of stars which we know as Ursa Minor. He is equipped with
hammer and chisel.
Below, on the right, is Pi Yuan Shuai, Commander of the Lightning, with his
flashing sword, a deity with distinct alchemical and cosmological interests. According
to tradition, in his early life he was a countryman whose name was Thien Hua.
Together with the colleague on his right, he controlled the Spirits of the Five
Directions.
Such is the legendary folklore of common men canonised by popular acclamation.
An interesting scroll, of no great artistic merit, destined to decorate a temple wall,
to be looked upon by humble people, it symbolises something which this book has
to say. Chinese art and literature have been so profuse, Chinese mythological
imagery so fertile, that the West has often missed other aspects, perhaps more
important, of Chinese civilisation. Here the graduated scale of Liu ChUn, at first
sight unexpected in this setting, reminds us of the ever-present theme of quanti
tative measurement in Chinese culture; there were rain-gauges already in the Sung
( + 12th century) and sliding calipers in the Han (+ 1st). The armillary ring of
Huan Tzu-YU bears witness that Naburiannu and Hipparchus, al-Naqqash and
Tycho, had worthy counterparts in China. The tools of Hsin Hsing symbolise that
great empirical tradition which informed the work of Chinese artisans and technicians
all through the ages.
a NCIVII
s
ND Cl I IS.Lt\. TIO
IEN(~E
I
AN D seeing that the Arts and Crafts, with other like Feats,
whose inventours be contained in this book, are in this
Realm of England occupied and daily put in exercise to
the profit of many, and ease of all men, it were in mine
opinion both a point of detestable unkindnesse, and a part
of extream inhumanity, to defraud them of their praise
and perpetual memory, that were Authors of so great
Benefits to the universal vVorld.
POL YDORE VERGIL
De Rerum Inventoribus (15I2)
English edition of Thomas Langley, 1659
SCIENCE AND
CIVILISATION IN
CHINA
BY
JOSEPH NEEDHAM,
F.R.S.
FELLOW AND PRESIDENT OF CAIUS COLLEGE
SIR WILLIAM DUNN READER IN BIOCHEMISTRY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
FOREIGN MEMBER OF ACADEMIA SI NI CA
With the collaboration of
WANG LING, PH.D.
TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
ASSOCIATE RESEARCH FELLOW OF ACADEMIA SINICA
VOLUME 4
PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL TECHNOLOGY
PART 11: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1965
PUBL! SHED BY
SYNDICS OF THE CAMBRIDGE NIVERSrTY
Bentley House, 200 Euston Road, London, N.vV.
American Branch: 32 East 57th Street, New York 22, N.Y REWI ALLEY
vVest African Office; p.a. Box 33, Ibadan, Nigeria
N t!'lA: Zealander by birth and citizenship
© Chinese by adoption and grace
MBR UN rVER8ITY pioneer of the industrial co-operatives
teacher of engineering
lover of Chinese youth
writer and poet
and
SOLOlVION ABRAMOVITCH TRONE
Engineer, sometime adviser on industrialisation in Russia,
China, India and Israel
humanist and man of vision
, Electrifikatsiya! Elektrifikatsiya! '
to these two friends
this volume is
dedicated
Printed in Great Britain at the University Printing House, Cambridge
(Brooke Crutchley, University Printer)
The Syndics of the Cambridge University Press CONTENTS
desire to acknowledge with gratitude certain financial aid
towards the production of this book, afforded by the List of Illustrations page xiii
Bollingen Foundation
List of Tables • xxxv
List of Abbreviations · xxxvii
Acknowledgements xli
Author's Note xliii
27 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING · page 1
(a) Introduction, p. 1
(I) The name and concept of engineer, p. 9
(2) Artisans and engineers in feudal-bureaucratic
society, p. 10
(3) Traditions of the artisanate, p. 42
(4) Tools and materials, p. 50
(b) Basic mechanical principles, p. 65
(I) Levers, hinges and linkwork, p. 69
(2) Wheels and gear-wheels, pedals and paddles, p. 73
(3) Pulleys, driving-belts and chain-drives, p. 95
(4) Crank and eccentric motion, p. 11 I
(5) Screws, worms and helicoidal vanes, p. 119
(6) Springs and spring mechanisms, p. 126
(7) Conduits, pipes and siphons, p. 127
(8) Valves, bellows, pumps and fans, p. 135
(c) Mechanical toys, p. 156
(d) Types of machines described in Chinese works, p. 165
( 1) The nature of the Chinese engineering literature,
p. 166
(2) Eotechnic machinery, powered by man and
animals, p. 174
(i) Pounding, grinding and milling, p. 183
(H) Sifting and pressing, p. 205
(3) Palaeotechnic machinery; Jesuit novelty and
redundance, p. 211
(i) A provisional balance-sheet of transmissions, p. 222
(ii) The steam-turbine in the Forbidden City, p. 225
(4) The 'Cardan' suspension, p. 228
(5) The locksmith's art, p. 236
CONTENTS CONTENTS Xl
V chides land transport,p. 243 (i) \Vheels ex-aqueous and ad-aqueous; ship-mill and
Chariots in ancient China, p. paddle-boat in East and West, p. 408
Wagons, camp-mills and hand-carts, p.
Clockwork; six hidden centuries, p. 435
The wheelbarrow and the sailing-carriage, p.
(1) Su Tzu-Jung and his astronomical clock, p. 446
The hodometer, p. 28 I (2) Clockwork in and before the Northern Sung, p. 466
The south-pointing p.
The pre-history of Chinese clockwork, p. 48 r
Power-sources From Su Tzu-Jung to Li Ma-Tou; clocks and
tion, p. 303 their makers, p. +94
Efficient harness and its p. 304 Korean orreries, Asiatick sing-songs, and the
(i) Throat-and-girth harness in Sumer and mechanisation of Mt Meru, .p.
Shang, p. 306 Clockwork and inter-cultural relations, 532
The first rationalisation; har ~ Vertical and horizontal mountings; the r"",,,I'vlncr book
ness in Chhu and Han, p. 308 case in East and West, p. 546
Comparative estimates, p. 3 12
(l') Power-sources and their employment (lII), Wind force;
Radiation of the inventions, p. 3 I 5
the windmill in East and "Vest, p. 555
(v) The second rationalisation; collar-harness
in Shu and Wei, p. 319 The pre-history of aeronautical engineering, p. 568
Animal power and human labour, p. 328 (I) Legendary material, p. 570
(2) Thaumaturgical artisans, p. 573
Hydraulic engineering (1), Water-raising machinery,
(3) The kite and its origins, p. 576
P·33° (4) The helicopter top; Ko Hung and George Cayley
(I) The swape (shiiduf; counterbalanced bailing
on the' hard wind' and' rotary wafts', p. 580
bucket), p. 33 I (5) The birth of aerodynamics, p. 59!
The well-windlass, p. 335
(6) The parachute in East and West, p. 594
(3) The scoop-wheel, p. 337
(7) The balloon in East and ·West,p. 595
The square-pallet chain-pump and the pater
noster pump, p. 339 (n) Conclusion, p. 599
(5) The siiqiya (pot chain-pump), p. 352
BIBLIOGRAPHIES page 603
(6) The noria (peripheral pot wheel), p. 356
Abbreviations, p. 604
POvver-sources and their employment (II), 'Vater flow
A. Chinese books before 1800, p. 6 I I
and descent, p. 362
(I) Spoon tilt-hammers, p. 363 B. Chinese and Japanese books and journal articles since + 1800,
(2) Water-wheels in "Vest and East, p. 366 p.632
(3) The metallurgical blowing-engines of the Han C. Books and journal articles in Western languages, p. 6+8
and Sung, p. 369
(4) Reciprocating motion and the steam-engine's GENERAL INDEX page 709
lineage, p. 380
Table of Chinese Dynasties 75+
(5) Hydraulic trip-hammers in the Han and Chin,
P·390 Summary of the Contents of Volume 4 755
(6) Water-mills from the Han onwards, p. 396 Addendum 758
(7) The problem of the inventions and their spread,
P·4°5
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
351 Title-page of the + 1646 edition of Guido Panciroli's book on
the history of inventions (PI. CXXIV) . facing p. 6
352 Title-page of Jan van der Straet's set of engravings depicting
discoveries and techniques considered new in his time
(+ 1585 to + 1638) (PI. CXXV) . facing p. 7
353 A late Chhing representation of artisans at work in the Imperial
Workshops (Shang Fang) . page 15
354 Paper block-print icon of the patron saint of all artisans and
engineers, Kungshu Phan page 43
355 An illustration from the Lu Pan Ching. Using a drawknife in
the timber-work of a watch-tower under construction page 45
356 Building a pavilion or watch-tower j fresco from cave no. 445
at Chhien-fo-tung (PI. CXXVI) facing p. 46
357 Japanese swordsmiths in ritual dress at work in their forge
(Anon. 36) (PI. CXXVII) facing p. 47
358 Han model of man-power tilt-hammer in iridescent green
glazed pottery (Nelson Art Gallery, Kansas City)
(PI. CXXVIII) facing p. 50
359 The oldest extant drawing of the tilt-hammer, from the
Khzg Chih Thu of + 1210 (PI. CXXVIII) facing p. 50
360 Traditional rope-suspended pile-driver, in use on the Old
Silk Road (orig. photo., 1943) (PI. CXXIX) facing p. 51
361 Chinese carpenter's plane (drawing from the collection of
Mr R. A. Salaman) . page 53
362 Frame- or bow-saw with toggle stick, from the Thu Shu
Chi Chhhzg page 54
363 Sawyers in the Chungking shipyards in 1944 (Beaton, I)
(PI. CXXX) facing p. 54
364 Apprentices using the Chinese double-tanged file
(PI. CXXXI) . facing p. 55
365 The double-tanged file in use in a coin-minting workshop of
the + 17th century (Thien Kung Khai Wu) (PI. CXXXII)
facing p. 54
366 The strap-drill in use (Hommel, I), as by shipwrights
(PI. CXXXIII) facing p. 55
XlV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILL USTHATIONS XV
367 The bow-drill in use as carpenters 386 Reconstmction of the Chhangsha chariot type page 79
(PI. '-,-',.-')"",""' p,
387 Quasi-diametral struts and outboard axle-bearings on the
The pump-drill used brass smiths
wheels of a Cambodian farm-cart (orig. photo., 1958)
(PI. CXXXIV) facing p.
(PI. CXL) facing p. 80
369 Alternating-motion treadle phan chhe (Fn:rnont, 5) page
388 A wheelwright'S of the Han period; stone relief
Apparatus for wire-drawing, yuan thieh h!.iien (Frernont, page 59 from Chia-hsiang, near Yen-chou (Shantung), found in
371 Adjustable outside caliper gauge with slot and se1f- 1954 (PI. CXLI) facingp. 8r
dated, 9 page 389 reconstruction of a Han n,,"nn;'_''"!'t1'r!; composite
A bamboo litter chiao tzu or hua-kan (from J\!1ason, I) cart-wheel (Lu, Salaman & Needham) page 81
page
390 Variations and combinations of shafts, wheels and cranks page 83
373 \Vays of using and jointing bamboo for pipes and conduits
391 Gear-wheels from the Chhin and Han periods ( 3rd to
(Sporry & Schroter) . page
+ 3rd centuries) (PI. CXLII) . facing p. 86
Flails as examples of linkwork and chain connection page
392 Objects believed to be gear-wheels with chevron-teeth
375 Link-hinge on a bronze wine-kettle (ho) of the loth
(double helical gear) (PI. CXLIII) . facing p. 87
century (Pt CXXXV) facing p. 70
393 Basic forms of pedals, treadles and treadmills page 9
Bronze castings of complex design from the - 6th century 0
(Chou period) excavated at Loyang (Pt CXXXVI) facing p. 71 394 Crane pulleys in the vVu Liang tomb-shrine reliefs (\V. Fair-
Polar projection illustrating the distribution of the war- bank, I) (PI. CXLIV) facing p. 94
chariot in antiquity (Bishop, 2). page 73 395 Han pottery jar representing a well-head with pulley and
378 The dishing of vehicle-wheels: drawings from traditional bucket (Laufer, 3) (Pt CXLV ) facing p. 96
English examples (Sturt, I) page 396 IVroulded brick from Chhiung-lai in Szechuan showing the
379 The park of vehicles of the 'Warring States period (-4th or salt industry (PI. CXLVI) facing p. 97
--3rd century) discovered in 1951 during the excavations
397 Pulley tackle, gearing, and a Hellenistic drum-treadmill,
of the royal tombs at Hui-hsien in Shantung
shown in the Chhi Chhi Thu Shuo ( + 1627) page 97
(PI. CXXXVII) facing p. 76
380 Detail of two chariots in the Hui-hsien park (PI. C:XXXVII) 398 The differential, or 'Chinese' windlass (Davis, I). page 98
facing p. 399 A traditional method used by Chinese builders for raising
381 Reconstruction of the Hui-hsien chariot type, scale drawings heavy weights (Tissandier, 4) . page 99
page 78 400 Another use of the windlass pulley, the reel on the fishing-
382 Reconstructed model of the Hui-hsien chariot type r~d (San Tshai Thu Hui, + 1609) page 101
(PI. CXXXVIII) . fadng p. 78
401 The earliest illustration of the fishing-rod reel, a painting by
383 Hui-hsien chariot model, showing wheel dish Ma Yuan, c. + II95 (from Siren, 6) (PI. CXLVII) facing p. 102
(PI. CXX:XVIII) . fadng p. 78
402 The Chinese multiple-spindle spinning-machine, an illustra-
384 Repaired and assembled model chariot from a tomb of the
Former Han period (-Ist century) at Chhangsha tion of + 1313 (PI. CXLVIII) . facing p. 103
(PI. CXXXIX) facing p. 79 403 Contemporary photograph (Hommel, I) of a three-spindle
385 Two nail-studded cart-wheels with outward dish doing duty as spinning-machine similar to that in the preceding figure
fly-wheels for a manually operated paternoster pump (orig. (PI. CXLIX) . facing p. 102
photo., 1958) (PI. CXXXIX) . facing p. 79 404 The rimless driving-wheel (PI. CL) facing p. 103
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii
405 The oldest representation of the spinning-wheel yet known 422 Brine conduits in bamboo piping at the Tzu-liu-ching salt-
from any culture; a painting attributed to Chhien Hsiian fields, Szechuan, 19# (Beaton, I) (PI. CLVIII) facing p. 128
and in any case datable about + 1270 (from Waley, 19)
423 Connecting a joint in a bamboo drill-haft for the salt-
(PI. CLI) facing p. 102 industry in Szechuan, + 1637 (PI. CLIX) facing p. 129
406 The block-spoked driving-wheel, a form in which the ends of
424 Ancient and medieval Chinese water-pipes . page 130
the spokes bear grooved blocks on which the driving-belt
425 Earthenware tiger-head water-spout to fit the delivery end of
is carried (orig. photo., 1943) (PI. CLII) . fadng p. 103
a pipeline ( - 4th or - 3rd century) (PI. CLX) . facing p. 132
407 Scale drawing of a Szechuanese spinning- or quilling-wheel
(Than Tan-Chhiung, 1) page 104 426 The bathing pavilion or Lodge of Artificial Rain in the Royal
Gardens at Anudidhapura, Ceylon (orig. photo., 1958)
408 Quilling-wheel in use for silk-throwing and the preparing of
(PI. CLXI) facing p. 133
the weft; a picture from the Kbzg Chih Thu (+ 1210)
(PI. CLlII) facing p. 106 427 a, b The oldest illustrations of the Chinese double-acting
piston-bellows (c. + 1280) page 136
409 The classical Chinese silk-reeling machine (sao chile, here
ssu ehhe ehhuang), an illustration from the Tshan Sang Ho 427 e, d The Chinese double-acting piston-bellows (Hommel, I)
Pien of Sha Shih-An et al. (1843) (PI. CLIV) facing p. 107 (PI. CLXII) facing p. 136
410 The oldest known illustration of an endless power-trans 428 A battery of double-acting piston-bellows in use by bronze-
mitting chain-drive, from Su Sung's Hsin I Hsiang Fa Y0 .0 founders, + 1637 (PI. CLXIII) facing p. 137
( + 1090) . page 1 II 429 Annamese single-acting double-cylinder metallurgical bellows
411 Ancient Egyptian crank drills, forerunners of the brace-and- (after Schroeder, in Fremont, 14) page 138
bit drill, from Old Kingdom reliefs. page 114 430 Forge bellows from a Hsi-Hsia fresco at Wan-fo-hsia (Yii
lin-khu), Kansu, dating from the + loth to + 13th centuries
412 Oblique crank on a farmer's well windlass at Kan-nan, Hei
lung-chiang province, Manchuria (orig. photo., 1952) (Tuan Wen-Chieh, I) (PI. CLXIV) . facing p. 140
(PI. CLV ) facing p. 114 431 The fire-piston, an indigenous form of lighter common to
South-east Asia and Madagascar, the Malayan culture area
413 Crank in the form of an eccentric lug, fitted with connecting-
(Hough, I) (PI. CLXIV) . facing p. 140
rod and hand-bar (+ 1313) page II7
414 The Chinese rotary-fan winnowing-machine in its classical 432 Part of a scroll-painting of the Chhing period showing the
form (from the Nung Shu, + 1313) . page II8 method of drawing brine from the deep bore-holes in the
Szechuanese salt-fields (from the collection of Mr R. Alley)
415 Farmyard model in iridescent green glazed pottery from a
(PI. CLXV) . facing p. 141
tomb of the Han period (-2nd to +2nd century; Nelson
Art Gallery, Kansas City) (PI. CLVI) facing p. 118 433 Illustrations of the military flamethrower for naphtha or
Greek fire (distilled petroleum) from the Wu Ching Tsung
416 The first Chinese diagram of a continuous screw or worm and
Yao of + 1044 page 146
its male and female threads (San Tshai Thu Hui) page 121
434 Reconstruction and explanation of the mechanism of the
417 A cotton gin, probably the most ancient form of rolling-mill
double-acting double-piston single-cylinder force-pump
(National Museum, Kandy) (PI. CLVII). facing p. 122
used in the + 11th-century flamethrower . page 148
418 Another traditional Sinhalese cotton-gin with two enmeshing
worms (PI. CLV II) . facing p. 122 435 Open treadle-operated rotary-fan winnowing-machine (yang
shan), from Thien Kung Khai Wu (+ 1637) page 152
419 A Chinese cotton-gin of + 1313 with two hand-cranks page 123
436 Grain-pounding with tilt-hammers, and winnowing by means
420 Chinese cotton-gin with hand-crank and treadle. page 123
of upright fan-boards; a Han moulded brick found at
421 Irrigation flume constructed in wood (chia tshao) • page 128 Pheng-shan Hsien (PI. CLXVI) facing,p. 154
Ne IV 11
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XiX
An artificial channel for wine-cups at
454 Rotary bogie-wheel edge-runner mill in Hupei
in the grounds of the Phosok-chong Pavilion at
facing p.
Kyongju in Korea (Chapin, I) (PI. CLX'\TII) facing p,
455 Hand-roller (hsiao nien) worked by two girls page 200
An Arabic version of the mechanical cup-bearers aboard their
456 Animal-driven roller-mill with and road-wheel (kun
automatic vessel; from a + 1315 lVIS. of al-Jazari's book on
nien) page 20J
ingenious devices written at D~e of the previous
The trapetum, an olive-crushing miU, characteristic of classical
century (PI.
Greece (after Drachmann, 7) . page
fltilisation and adaptation of the traditional Chinese style in
The mola olear£a, another type of oh ve~crushing mill, used in
craftsmanship and engineering to meet contemporary needs;
the Hellenistic world (after Drachmann, 7) page 203
designs from the National Exhibition of Agricultural
459 Animal-driven rolling-mill for expressing the of the
Machinery, A tea-leaf and
mill . page sugar-cane (ya cM) . page 205
!
460 Treadle-operated sifting or bolting machine (mien 10) page 207
440 Contemporary adaptations; a wheelbarrow-mounted crop-
sprayer with a drive from the wheel. page 461 Hydraulic sifting or bolting machine (shui la 10) . page 208
441 Contemporary adaptations; a almost 462 The principal types of pressing plant . page
wholly wooden construction page r75 463 The most characteristic Chinese oil-press, a great tree-trunk
442 Reciprocating motion in mills page 185 slotted and hollowed out (PI. CLXXI) facing p. 210
464 J\lIodel of the rope-clutch press as used in the paper and
443 Rotary mills page r86
tobacco industries (Mercer Museum) (PI. CLXXII) facing p. 2I I
444 Typical Chinese rural hand-quem page 188
465 An endless-chain bucket-conveyor, as it appeared in the
445 Chinese rotary mills; the lung, of baked clay or wood, used Chhi Chhi Thu Shuo of + 1627. page 2 I 2
for hulling grain and decorticating rice (PI. CLXVIII) 466 The endless-chain bucket-conveyor, from Besson's engineering
facing p. I S8 treatise of + 1578 (PI. CLXXIII) facing p. 2 I 2
446 Chinese rotary mills; the mo, of stone, used for comminuting 467 A water-pump worked by a Hellenistic drum-treadmill, from
husked grain, rice or naked wheat, to flour (Pt CLXIX) the Chhi Chhi Thu Shuo of + 1627 . page 214
facing p. I89 468 The original from which the previous picture was taken, an
447 Typical Han tomb-model of rotary hand-quem with a double illustration from Zonca's engineering treatise of + 1607
hopper page 190 (PI. CLXXIV) facing p. 2I4
448 Pot-quem or paint-mill page 19I 469 Mechanical, or cable, ploughing (tai Mng), an illustration from
449 Ox-driven cereal grinding-mill (mo) page 193 the Chhi Chhi Thu Shuo (+ 1627) page 22I
470 Inclined man-power treadmill (Ramelli, + I588) . page 223
450 Mule-driven cereal grinding-mill with crossed driving-belt
471 Double swape worked by a rotating conical cam (Besson,
from a larger whim wheel page 194
+ 1578) page 223
451 Geared animal-driven milling-plant (lien rno), with eight mills
472 M odel of the steam-turbine road-carriage constructed by P. M.
worked directly by the central whim wheel page 196
Grimaldi, together with many other scientific and technical
Longitudinal-travel edge-runner mill (yen nien), grinding demonstrations, for the entertainment and instruction of
cinnabar for vermilion (chu), and mainly used in the mineral the young Khang-Hsi emperor about + 1671 (PI. CLXXV)
and pharmaceutical industries . page 197 facing p. 226
453 Rotary double edge-runner mill (shih nien), for millet, kao- 473 Tibetan steam-jet fire-blower in copper (Museum of Archae-
liang, hemp, ete page 198 ology and Ethnology, Cambridge) (PI. CLXXVI) facing p. 227
b-z