Schaum's Outline of General, Organic, and Biochemistry for Nursing and Allied Health

512 Pages·2009·28.28 MB·English

by  George Odian

SCHAUM'S
outlines
General, Organic, and
Biochemistry for
Nursing and Allied
Health
This page intentionally left blank
SCHAUM'S
outlines
General, Organic, and
Biochemistry for
Nursing and Allied
Health
Second Edition
George Odian, Ph.D.
Professor of Chemistry
The College of Staten Island
City University of New York
Ira Blei, Ph.D.
Professor of Chemistry
The College of Staten Island
City University of New York
Schaum’s Outline Series
MC
Graw
Hill
New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London
Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan
Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
Copyright © 2009, l994 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no
part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-0-07-162351-7
MHID: 0-07-162351-5
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-161165-7, MHID: 0-07-161165-7.
All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names
in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear
in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.
McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. To
contact a representative please e-mail us at [email protected].
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work
is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decom-
pile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the
work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work
is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE
ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY
INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY
WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your
requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any
inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of
any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special,
punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of
such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
Preface
This book is intended for students who are preparing for careers in health fields such as nursing, physical
therapy, podiatry, medical technology, agricultural science, public health, and nutrition. The chemistry
courses taken by these students typically include material covered in general chemistry, organic chemistry,
and biochemistry, compressed into a 1-year period. Because of this broad requirement, many students feel
overwhelmed. To help them understand and assimilate so much diverse material, we offer the outline of
these topics presented in the text that follows. Throughout we have kept theoretical discussions to a mini-
mum in favor of presenting key topics as questions to be answered and problems to be solved. The book
can be used to accompany any standard text and to supplement lecture notes. Studying for exams should
be much easier with this book at hand.
The solved problems serve two purposes. First, interspersed with the text, they illustrate, comment on,
and support the fundamental principles and theoretical material introduced. Second, as additional solved
problems and supplementary problems at the end of each chapter, they test a student’s mastery of the mate-
rial and, at the same time, provide step-by-step solutions to the kinds of problems likely to be encountered
on examinations.
No assumptions have been made regarding student knowledge of the physical sciences and mathematics;
such background material is provided where required. SI units are used as consistently as possible. How-
ever, non-SI units that remain in common use, such as liter, atmosphere, and calorie, will be found where
appropriate.
The first chapter emphasizes the current method employed in mathematical calculations, viz., factor-
label analysis. In the section on chemical bonding, although molecular orbitals are discussed, VSEPR
theory (valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory) is emphasized in characterizing three-dimensional
molecular structure. The discussion of nuclear processes includes material on modern spectroscopic methods
of noninvasive anatomical visualization.
The study of organic chemistry is organized along family lines. To simplify the learning process, the
structural features, physical properties, and chemical behavior of each family are discussed from the view-
point of distinguishing that family from other families with an emphasis on those characteristics that are
important for the consideration of biologically important molecules.
The study of biochemistry includes chapters on the four important families of biochemicals—
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids—with an emphasis on the relationship between chemical
structure and biological function for each. These chapters are followed by others on intermediary metabo-
lism and human nutrition. In the discussion of all these topics we have emphasized physiological questions
and applications where possible.
We would like to thank Charles A. Wall (Senior Editor), Anya Kozorez (Sponsoring Editor), Kimberly-Ann
Eaton (Associate Editor), Tama Harris McPhatter (Production Supervisor), and Frank Kotowski, Jr. (Editing
Supervisor) at McGraw-Hill Professional, and Vasundhara Sawhney (Project Manager) at International
Typesetting & Composition for their encouragement and conscientious and professional efforts in bringing
this book to fruition.
The authors welcome comments from readers at [email protected] and [email protected].
GEORGE ODIAN
IRA BLEI
v
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
CHAPTER 1 Chemistry and Measurement 1
1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Measurement and the metric system. 1.3 Scien-
tific notation (1.3.1 Logarithms). 1.4 Significant figures. 1.5 Significant
figures and calculations. 1.6 Measurement and error. 1.7 Factor-label
method. 1.8 Mass, volume, density, temperature, heat, and other forms
of energy (1.8.1 Mass, 1.8.2 Volume, 1.8.3 Density, 1.8.4 Temperature,
1.8.5 Heat, 1.8.6 Other forms of energy).
CHAPTER 2 Atomic Structure and The Periodic Table 26
2.1 The atomic theory. 2.2 Atomic masses. 2.3 Atomic structure.
2.4 Isotopes. 2.5 The periodic table. 2.6 Atomic structure and periodicity.
CHAPTER 3 Compounds and Chemical Bonding 45
3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Nomenclature (3.2.1 Binary ionic compounds,
3.2.2 Polyatomic ions, 3.2.3 Covalent compounds). 3.3 Ionic bonds.
3.4 Covalent bonds. 3.5 Lewis structures. 3.6 Three-dimensional mo-
lecular structures.
CHAPTER 4 Chemical Calculations 69
4.1 Chemical formulas and formula masses. 4.2 The mole. 4.3 Avogadro’s
number. 4.4 Empirical formulas and percent composition. 4.5 Molecular
formula from empirical formula and molecular mass. 4.6 Balancing chemical
equations. 4.7 Stoichiometry.
CHAPTER 5 Physical Properties of Matter 88
5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Kinetic-molecular theory. 5.3 Cohesive forces.
5.4 The gaseous state (5.4.1 Gas pressure, 5.4.2 The gas laws, 5.4.3 Boyle’s
law, 5.4.4 Charles’ law, 5.4.5 Combined gas laws, 5.4.6 The ideal gas law,
5.4.7 The ideal gas law and molecular mass, 5.4.8 Dalton’s law of partial
pressures). 5.5 Liquids (5.5.1 Liquids and vapor pressure, 5.5.2 Viscosity
of liquids, 5.5.3 Surface tension). 5.6 Solids.
CHAPTER 6 Concentration and its Units 109
6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Percent concentration. 6.3 Molarity. 6.4 Molality.
vii
viii Contents
CHAPTER 7 Solutions 119
7.1 Solutions as mixtures. 7.2 Solubility (7.2.1 Solubility of gases,
7.2.2 Solubility of solids). 7.3 Water. 7.4 Dilution. 7.5 Neutralization
and titration. 7.6 Colligative properties, diffusion, and membranes
(7.6.1 Osmotic pressure, 7.6.2 Freezing point depression and boiling point
elevation).
CHAPTER 8 Chemical Reactions 134
8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Chemical kinetics (8.2.1 Collision theory, 8.2.2 Heat
of reaction and activation energy, 8.2.3 Reaction rates, 8.2.4 Effect of con-
centration on reaction rate, 8.2.5 Effect of temperature on reaction rate,
8.2.6 Effect of catalysts on reaction rate). 8.3 Chemical equilibrium
(8.3.1 Equilibrium constants). 8.4 Le Chatelier principle. 8.5 Oxidation-
reduction reactions (8.5.1 Oxidation states, 8.5.2 Balancing redox reactions,
8.5.3 Combustion reactions).
CHAPTER 9 Aqueous Solutions of Acids, Bases, and Salts 155
9.1 Acid-base theories (9.1.1 Acids and bases according to Arrhenius,
9.1.2 Acids and bases according to Brønsted and Lowry, 9.1.3 Lewis acids
and bases). 9.2 Water reacts with water. 9.3 Acids and bases: strong versus
weak. 9.4 pH, a measure of acidity. 9.5 pH and weak acids and bases.
9.6 Polyprotic acids. 9.7 Salts and hydrolysis. 9.8 Buffers and buffer
solutions. 9.9 Titration. 9.10 Normality.
Organic Chemistry
CHAPTER 10 Nuclear Chemistry and Radioactivity 177
10.1 Radioactivity (10.1.1 Radioactive emissions, 10.1.2 Radioactive decay,
10.1.3 Radioactive series, 10.1.4 Transmutation, 10.1.5 Nuclear fission,
10.1.6 Nuclear fusion, 10.1.7 Nuclear energy). 10.2 Effects of radiation.
10.3 Detection. 10.4 Units. 10.5 Applications.
CHAPTER 11 Organic Compounds; Saturated Hydrocarbons 193
11.1 Organic chemistry. 11.2 Molecular and structural formulas.
11.3 Families of organic compounds, functional groups. 11.4 Alkanes.
11.5 Writing structural formulas. 11.6 Constitutional isomers.
11.7 Nomenclature (11.7.1 Alkyl groups, 11.7.2 IUPAC nomenclature,
11.7.3 Other names). 11.8 Cycloalkanes. 11.9 Physical properties
(11.9.1 Boiling and melting points, 11.9.2 Solubility). 11.10 Chemical reac-
tions (11.10.1 Halogenation, 11.10.2 Combustion).
CHAPTER 12 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: Alkenes, Alkynes, Aromatics 220
12.1 Alkenes. 12.2 The carbon-carbon double bond. 12.3 Constitutional
isomerism in alkenes. 12.4 Nomenclature of alkenes. 12.5 Cis-trans isomers
(12.5.1 Alkenes, 12.5.2 Cycloalkanes). 12.6 Chemical reactions of alkenes
(12.6.1 Addition, 12.6.2 Mechanism of addition reactions, 12.6.3 Polymerization,
12.6.4 Oxidation). 12.7 Alkynes. 12.8 Aromatics. 12.9 Nomenclature of
aromatic compounds. 12.10 Reactions of benzene.
Contents ix
CHAPTER 13 Alcohols, Phenols, Ethers, and Thioalcohols 248
13.1 Alcohols. 13.2 Constitutional isomerism in alcohols. 13.3 Nomen-
clature of alcohols. 13.4 Physical properties of alcohols. 13.5 Chemical
reactions of alcohols (13.5.1 Acid-base properties, 13.5.2 Dehydration,
13.5.3 Oxidation). 13.6 Phenols. 13.7 Ethers. 13.8 Thioalcohols.
CHAPTER 14 Aldehydes and Ketones 271
14.1 Structure of aldehydes and ketones. 14.2 Constitutional isomer-
ism in aldehydes and ketones. 14.3 Nomenclature of aldehydes and
ketones. 14.4 physical properties of aldehydes and ketones. 14.5 Oxi-
dation of aldehydes and ketones. 14.6 Reduction of aldehydes and ketones.
14.7 Reaction of aldehydes and ketones with alcohol.
CHAPTER 15 Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Related Compounds 288
15.1 Structure of carboxylic acids. 15.2 Nomenclature of carboxylic acids.
15.3 Physical properties of carboxylic acids. 15.4 Acidity of carboxylic
acids. 15.5 Soaps and detergents. 15.6 Conversion of carboxylic acids to
esters. 15.7 Nomenclature and physical properties of esters. 15.8 Chemical
reactions of esters. 15.9 Carboxylic acid anhydrides, halides and amides.
15.10 Phosphoric acid anhydrides and esters.
CHAPTER 16 Amines and Amides 305
16.1 Amines. 16.2 Constitutional isomerism in amines. 16.3 Nomen-
clature of amines. 16.4 Physical properties of amines. 16.5 Chemical
reactions of amines (16.5.1 Basicity, 16.5.2 Nucleophilic substitution on alkyl
halides). 16.6 Conversion of amines to amides. 16.7 Nomenclature and
physical properties of amides. 16.8 Chemical reactions of amides.
CHAPTER 17 Stereoisomerism 322
17.1 Review of isomerism (17.l.l Constitutional isomers, 17.1.2 Geo-
metrical isomers). 17.2 Enantiomers. 17.3 Nomenclature and prop-
erties of enantiomers (17.3.1 Nomenclature, 17.3.2 Physical properties,
17.3.3 Chemical properties). 17.4 Compounds with more than one stereo-
center.
Biochemistry
CHAPTER 18 Carbohydrates 339
18.1 Monosaccharides. 18.2 Cyclic hemiacetal and hemiketal structures.
18.3 Properties and reactions of monosaccharides. 18.4 Disaccharides.
18.5 Polysaccharides.
CHAPTER 19 Lipids 361
19.1 Introduction. 19.2 Fatty acids. 19.3 Triacylglycerols (19.3.1 Struc-
ture and physical properties, 19.3.2 Chemical reactions). 19.4 Waxes.
19.5 Phospholipids. 19.6 Sphingolipids. 19.7 Nonhydrolyzable lipids.
19.8 Cell membranes. 19.9 Lipids and health.