Scanning Nonlinear Dielectric Microscopy: Investigation of Ferroelectric, Dielectric, and Semiconductor Materials and Devices

252 Pages·2020·20.95 MB·English

by  Yasuo Cho

Scanning Nonlinear
Dielectric Microscopy
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic
and Optical Materials
Scanning Nonlinear
Dielectric Microscopy
Investigation of Ferroelectric,
Dielectric, and Semiconductor
Materials and Devices
YASUO CHO
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Contents
Preface ix
1. Principlesof scanning nonlinear dielectric microscopy for
measuring ferroelectric anddielectric materials 1
1.1 Basictheory 1
1.2 Systemsetupofscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy 6
1.3 Theoryfornonlineardielectricimaging 9
1.4 Higher-orderscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy 16
References 21
2. Ferroelectric polarization measurement 23
2.1 Analysisofdistributionsofferroelectricdomainsonamicroscopicscale
usingscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy 23
2.2 Higher-ordernonlineardielectricanalyses 26
References 37
3. Three-dimensionalpolarization measurement 39
3.1 Basicsofthree-dimensionalpolarizationdistributionassessment 39
3.2 Principlesofthree-dimensionalpolarizationassessmentusingscanning
nonlineardielectricmicroscopy 39
3.3 LateralassessmentbyKelvinforcemicroscopywithelectricfieldcorrection 42
3.4 Lateralnanoscaleassessmentwithelectricfieldcorrection 46
References 48
4. Ultrahigh-density ferroelectric data storage using scanning
nonlinear dielectric microscopy 49
4.1 Ferroelectricprobememorybasedonscanningnonlineardielectric
microscopywithalinearscanningstage 49
4.2 Hard-disk-drive-typescanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopyferroelectric
probememory 59
References 70
v
vi Contents
5. Linear permittivitymeasurement by scanning nonlinear dielectric
microscopy 75
5.1 Basicsoflinearpermittivityimagingusingcantilever-andneedle-type
scanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy 75
5.2 Quantitativelinearpermittivityimagingwithneedle-typescanning
nonlineardielectricmicroscopy 77
5.3 Quantitativelinearpermittivitydeterminationusingcantilever-type
scanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy 80
References 91
6. Noncontact scanning nonlinear dielectric microscopy 95
6.1 Basicsofnoncontactscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy 95
6.2 Assessmentsofatomicdipolemomentsusingnoncontactscanning
nonlineardielectricmicroscopy 99
References 111
7. Scanning nonlinear dielectric potentiometry for measurement
of the potential induced byatomicdipolemoments 113
7.1 Principlesofscanningnonlineardielectricpotentiometry 113
7.2 Determiningatomicdipolemomentsatinterfacesbetweengraphene
andSiCsubstratesbyscanningnonlineardielectricpotentiometry 124
References 137
8. Principles of scanningnonlinear dielectric microscopy for
semiconductormeasurement 141
8.1 Thebasisforsemiconductoranalysisbyscanningnonlineardielectric
microscopy 141
8.2 Basicaspectsofsemiconductoranalysisbyscanningnonlineardielectric
microscopy 142
8.3 High-sensitivityscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopyfordopant
profiling 144
8.4 Avoidingthecontrastreversalissue 148
References 151
9. Carrier distribution measurement insemiconductor materials
and devices 153
9.1 Assessmentsofthedistributionsofcarriersinmonocrystallineand
amorphoussiliconsolarcells 153
9.2 AssessmentsofpolarizationandcarriersinGaNHEMTs 162
Contents vii
9.3 Contrastgenerationduringscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy
imagingoffixedchargesatametaloxide(cid:1)nitrideoxidesemiconductor
interface 167
References 171
10. Super-higher-order scanning nonlinear dielectric microscopy 175
10.1 Basicsofsuper-higher-orderscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy 175
10.2 ExaminingthedepletionlayerinaMOSFET 176
10.3 Analysisofcarriertypesandthedepletionlayerinamorphousand
monocrystallineSisolarcellsbysuper-higher-orderscanningnonlinear
dielectricmicroscopy 181
10.4 Usingsuper-higher-orderscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopyto
assesscarrierredistributioninoperationalSiCpowerdouble-implanted
MOSFETsbasedongate-sourcevoltage 183
References 187
11. Local deep-level transient spectroscopy 189
11.1 Localdeep-leveltransientspectroscopy 189
11.2 Applyinglocaldeep-leveltransientspectroscopytotrapassessment 199
References 217
12. Time-resolved scanning nonlineardielectric microscopy 221
12.1 Thebasicsoftime-resolvedscanningnonlineardielectricmicroscopy 221
12.2 High-resolutionanalysisofSiO /4H-SiCinterfacesubsurfacedefectsusing
2
localdeep-leveltransientspectroscopybasedontime-resolvedscanning
nonlineardielectricmicroscopy 232
References 237
Index 239
Preface
Scanning nonlinear dielectric microscopy (SNDM) was invented in 1994
in Yamaguchi, Japan. Originally it was developed for investigating ferro-
electric and dielectric materials with rather small nonlinear dielectric
effects through the detection of capacitance variations caused by an
applied voltage, that is, dC/dV. Thus since its early days, SNDM has
featuredpaffiffiffihffiffiffiigh sensitivity to capacitance variation, on the order of
10222F= Hz.
SNDM can easily measure nanoscale ferroelectric domains under
ambient conditions and even atomic-scale dipole moments under ultra-
high vacuum conditions. Moreover, as an application of SNDM to next-
generation ultrahigh-density memory devices beyond the magnetic hard
disk drive (HDD) and semiconductor flash memory, an investigation of
ultrahigh-density ferroelectric data storage based on SNDM has been
extensively investigated.
As SNDM has a high sensitivity to capacitance variation, it is also very
effective at characterizing semiconductor materials and devices. It can eas-
ily distinguish the dopant type (PN) and has a wide dynamic range of sen-
sitivity to both low and high concentrations of dopants. It is also
applicable to the analysis of compound semiconductors with much lower
signal levels than Si. We can avoid errors due to the two-valued function
(contrast reversal) problem of dC/dV signals using dC/dz-SNDM.
Extended versions of SNDM have been developed, such as superhigher-
order SNDM, local-deep-level transient spectroscopy, noncontact
SNDM, and scanning nonlinear dielectric potentiometry. The favorable
features of SNDM originate from its significant sensitivity.
Thus this book will meet the needs of those researchers in the indus-
try, as well as academics and students, involved in the fields of ferroelec-
trics, dielectrics, semiconductors, and scanning probe microscopy.
This book will help those intending to investigate the ferroelectric
nanodomain structure, which cannot be resolved by conventional piezo-
response force microscopy (PFM), and the atomic dipole moment, which
cannot be distinguished by conventional Kelvin probe force microscopy
(KPFM), to realize ultrahigh-density ferroelectric data storage with much
higher memory densities compared to flash memories and magnetic
HDDs, to visualize the dopant distribution in the fine structure of
ix
x Preface
state-of-the-art mutualized semiconductor devices, to visualize linear
permittivities with higher resolution than other capacitance microscopies,
to perform operand measurements of the carrier distribution of working
semiconductor devices, to visualize the depletion layer distribution of
semiconductor devices that cannot be measured by other methods, to
visualize the two-dimensional trap (interface state of density, D ) distribu-
it
tion at the MOS interface, which has never been visualized by other
techniques, and to measure real-time (ns range) carrier movement in
semiconductor materials and devices.
This book about SNDM gives new insight into the material and
device physics of ferroelectrics, dielectrics, and semiconductors, which has
proven hard to obtain by other methods.
The author would like to acknowledge the many colleagues and stu-
dents who have collaborated with and assisted the author in developing
many advanced types of SNDM.
Finally, the author wishes to thank his family for their kind encourage-
ment. Without their support and understanding, this book would not be
have been published.
Yasuo Cho
Research Institute of Electrical Communication,
Tohoku University
September 2019
CHAPTER 1
Principles of scanning nonlinear
dielectric microscopy
for measuring ferroelectric
and dielectric materials
1.1 Basic theory
1.1.1 Macroscopic phenomenological definition of linear and
nonlinear dielectric constants
The relationship between the electric field and electric displacement in a
nonlinear dielectric material with a fixed spontaneous polarization Ps is
defined as follows. When we focus on the dielectric effects and disregard
the effects associated with piezoelectricity and elasticity, the differential
relationship for the internal energy function in the dielectric material can
be expressed as [1(cid:1)3]
dU5EidDi1θdσ; (1.1)
where Ei and Di denote the ith (i51, 2, 3) component of the electric
field and the electric displacement, respectively, and θ and σ are the tem-
perature and entropy, respectively. In the above and below equations, we
employed the Einstein convention that a repeated suffix represents a sum-
mation with respect to that suffix.
As the internal energy is determined/governed by the independent
variables Di and σ, it is somewhat inconvenient for deriving the defini-
tions of the dielectric constants. To change the independent variable from
Di to Ei, we define the electric enthalpy H2 as [1,2]
H2 (cid:3) U2EiDi (1.2)
with its differential form given by
dH252DidEi1θdσ: (1.3)
ScanningNonlinearDielectricMicroscopy ©2020ElsevierLtd.
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817246-9.00001-7 Allrightsreserved. 1