Satellite Technology, Second Edition, Second Edition

686 Pages·2010·65.944 MB·English

by  Anil K. Maini, Varsha Agrawal(auth.)

SATELLITE
TECHNOLOGY
Satellite Technology: Principles and Applications, Second Edition A nil K. Maini and Varsha Agrawal
© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-66024-9
SATELLITE
TECHNOLOGY
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
SecondEdition
AnilK.Maini
VarshaAgrawal
BothofLaserScienceandTechnologyCentre,
DefenceResearchandDevelopmentOrganization,
MinistryofDefence,India
Thiseditionfirstpublished2011
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Maini,AnilKumar.
Satellitetechnology:principlesandapplications/AnilK.Maini,VarshaAgrawal.–2nded.
p.cm.
Includesindex.
ISBN978-0-470-66024-9(cloth)
1.Artificialsatellites.I.Agrawal,Varsha.II.Title.
TL796.M282010
629.43’4–dc22
2010015325
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
PrintISBN:9780470660249(H/B)
ePDFISBN:9780470711729
oBookISBN:9780470711736
Setin10/12TimesbyThomsonDigital,Noida,India
Contents
Preface xvii
PARTI SATELLITETECHNOLOGY
1 IntroductiontoSatellitesandtheirApplications 3
1.1 Ever-expandingApplicationSpectrum 3
1.2 WhatisaSatellite? 4
1.3 HistoryoftheEvolutionofSatellites 7
1.3.1 EraofHotAirBalloonsandSoundingRockets 7
1.3.2 LaunchofEarlyArtificialSatellites 8
1.3.3 SatellitesforCommunications,MeteorologyandScientific
Exploration–EarlyDevelopments 10
1.3.4 Non-geosynchronousCommunicationSatellites:
TelstarandRelayProgrammes 11
1.3.5 EmergenceofGeosynchronousCommunication
Satellites 12
1.3.6 InternationalCommunicationSatelliteSystems 15
1.3.7 DomesticCommunicationSatelliteSystems 16
1.3.8 SatellitesforotherApplicationsalsomade
RapidProgress 18
1.4 EvolutionofLaunchVehicles 22
1.5 FutureTrends 28
1.5.1 CommunicationSatellites 28
1.5.2 WeatherForecastingSatellites 28
1.5.3 EarthObservationSatellites 28
1.5.4 NavigationalSatellites 29
1.5.5 MilitarySatellites 30
FurtherReading 30
Glossary 30
2 SatelliteOrbitsandTrajectories 33
2.1 DefinitionofanOrbitandaTrajectory 33
vi Contents
2.2 OrbitingSatellites–BasicPrinciples 33
2.2.1 Newton’sLawofGravitation 35
2.2.2 Newton’sSecondLawofMotion 36
2.2.3 Kepler’sLaws 37
2.3 OrbitalParameters 40
2.4 InjectionVelocityandResultingSatelliteTrajectories 57
2.5 TypesofSatelliteOrbits 63
2.5.1 OrientationoftheOrbitalPlane 63
2.5.2 EccentricityoftheOrbit 64
2.5.3 DistancefromEarth 66
2.5.4 Sun-synchronousOrbit 69
FurtherReading 72
Glossary 72
3 SatelliteLaunchandIn-orbitOperations 75
3.1 AcquiringtheDesiredOrbit 75
3.1.1 ParametersDefiningtheSatelliteOrbit 75
3.1.2 ModifyingtheOrbitalParameters 79
3.2 LaunchSequence 91
3.2.1 TypesofLaunchSequence 91
3.2.2 LaunchVehicles 96
3.3 OrbitalPerturbations 97
3.4 SatelliteStabilization 100
3.4.1 SpinStabilization 100
3.4.2 Three-axisorBodyStabilization 101
3.4.3 ComparisonbetweenSpin-stabilizedandThree-axis
StabilizedSatellites 102
3.4.4 StationKeeping 103
3.5 OrbitalEffectsonSatellite’sPerformance 103
3.5.1 DopplerShift 103
3.5.2 VariationintheOrbitalDistance 103
3.5.3 SolarEclipse 104
3.5.4 SunTransitOutrage 104
3.6 Eclipses 105
3.7 LookAnglesofaSatellite 107
3.7.1 AzimuthAngle 108
3.7.2 ElevationAngle 109
3.7.3 ComputingtheSlantRange 111
3.7.4 ComputingtheLine-of-SightDistancebetweenTwoSatellites 112
3.8 EarthCoverageandGroundTracks 119
3.8.1 SatelliteAltitudeandtheEarthCoverageArea 119
3.8.2 SatelliteGroundTracks 121
3.8.3 OrbitInclinationandLatitudeCoverage 122
FurtherReading 125
Glossary 126
vii
4 SatelliteHardware 127
4.1 SatelliteSubsystems 127
4.2 MechanicalStructure 128
4.2.1 DesignConsiderations 129
4.2.2 TypicalStructure 129
4.3 PropulsionSubsystem 130
4.3.1 BasicPrinciple 131
4.3.2 TypesofPropulsionSystem 131
4.4 ThermalControlSubsystem 138
4.4.1 SourcesofThermalInequilibrium 139
4.4.2 MechanismofHeatTransfer 139
4.4.3 TypesofThermalControl 140
4.5 PowerSupplySubsystem 142
4.5.1 TypesofPowerSystem 142
4.5.2 SolarEnergyDrivenPowerSystems 143
4.5.3 Batteries 148
4.6 AttitudeandOrbitControl 152
4.6.1 AttitudeControl 153
4.6.2 OrbitControl 153
4.7 Tracking,TelemetryandCommandSubsystem 154
4.8 Payload 156
4.9 AntennaSubsystem 158
4.9.1 AntennaParameters 160
4.9.2 TypesofAntenna 163
4.10 SpaceQualificationandEquipmentReliability 177
4.10.1 SpaceQualification 177
4.10.2 Reliability 178
FurtherReading 178
Glossary 179
5 CommunicationTechniques 183
5.1 TypesofInformationSignals 183
5.1.1 VoiceSignals 184
5.1.2 DataSignals 184
5.1.3 VideoSignals 184
5.2 AmplitudeModulation 185
5.2.1 FrequencySpectrumoftheAMSignal 186
5.2.2 PowerintheAMSignal 187
5.2.3 NoiseintheAMSignal 187
5.2.4 DifferentFormsofAmplitudeModulation 189
5.3 FrequencyModulation 195
5.3.1 FrequencySpectrumoftheFMSignal 197
5.3.2 NarrowBandandWideBandFM 199
5.3.3 NoiseintheFMSignal 200
viii Contents
5.3.4 GenerationofFMSignals 204
5.3.5 DetectionofFMSignals 206
5.4 PulseCommunicationSystems 213
5.4.1 AnaloguePulseCommunicationSystems 213
5.4.2 DigitalPulseCommunicationSystems 215
5.5 SamplingTheorem 219
5.6 Shannon–HartleyTheorem 220
5.7 DigitalModulationTechniques 221
5.7.1 AmplitudeShiftKeying(ASK) 222
5.7.2 FrequencyShiftKeying(FSK) 222
5.7.3 PhaseShiftKeying(PSK) 223
5.7.4 DifferentialPhaseShiftKeying(DPSK) 224
5.7.5 QuadraturePhaseShiftKeying(QPSK) 225
5.7.6 OffsetQPSK 227
5.8 MultiplexingTechniques 228
5.8.1 FrequencyDivisionMultiplexing 228
5.8.2 TimeDivisionMultiplexing 229
FurtherReading 231
Glossary 231
6 MultipleAccessTechniques 235
6.1 IntroductiontoMultipleAccessTechniques 235
6.1.1 TransponderAssignmentModes 236
6.2 FrequencyDivisionMultipleAccess(FDMA) 237
6.2.1 DemandAssignedFDMA 239
6.2.2 Pre-assignedFDMA 239
6.2.3 CalculationofC/NRatio 239
6.3 SingleChannelPerCarrier(SCPC)Systems 242
6.3.1 SCPC/FM/FDMASystem 242
6.3.2 SCPC/PSK/FDMASystem 243
6.4 MultipleChannelsPerCarrier(MCPC)Systems 244
6.4.1 MCPC/FDM/FM/FDMASystem 244
6.4.2 MCPC/PCM-TDM/PSK/FDMASystem 245
6.5 TimeDivisionMultipleAccess(TDMA) 246
6.6 TDMAFrameStructure 246
6.6.1 ReferenceBurst 247
6.6.2 TrafficBurst 247
6.6.3 GuardTime 248
6.7 TDMABurstStructure 248
6.7.1 CarrierandClockRecoverySequence 248
6.7.2 UniqueWord 248
6.7.3 SignallingChannel 249
6.7.4 TrafficInformation 250
6.8 ComputingUniqueWordDetectionProbability 250
6.9 TDMAFrameEfficiency 251
ix
6.10 ControlandCoordinationofTraffic 252
6.11 FrameAcquisitionandSynchronization 254
6.11.1 ExtractionofTrafficBurstsfromReceiveFrames 254
6.11.2 TransmissionofTrafficBursts 254
6.11.3 FrameSynchronization 254
6.12 FDMAvs.TDMA 256
6.12.1 AdvantagesofTDMAoverFDMA 257
6.12.2 DisadvantagesofTDMAoverFDMA 257
6.13 CodeDivisionMultipleAccess(CDMA) 257
6.13.1 DS-CDMATransmissionandReception 258
6.13.2 FrequencyHoppingCDMA(FH-CDMA)System 260
6.13.3 TimeHoppingCDMA(TH-CDMA)System 262
6.13.4 ComparisonofDS-CDMA,FH-CDMAand
TH-CDMASystems 263
6.14 SpaceDomainMultipleAccess(SDMA) 265
6.14.1 FrequencyRe-useinSDMA 265
6.14.2 SDMA/FDMASystem 266
6.14.3 SDMA/TDMASystem 267
6.14.4 SDMA/CDMASystem 268
FurtherReading 268
Glossary 269
7 SatelliteLinkDesignFundamentals 271
7.1 TransmissionEquation 271
7.2 SatelliteLinkParameters 273
7.2.1 ChoiceofOperatingFrequency 273
7.2.2 PropagationConsiderations 273
7.2.3 NoiseConsiderations 274
7.2.4 Interference-relatedProblems 274
7.3 FrequencyConsiderations 275
7.3.1 FrequencyAllocationandCoordination 275
7.4 PropagationConsiderations 279
7.4.1 Free-spaceLoss 279
7.4.2 GaseousAbsorption 280
7.4.3 AttenuationduetoRain 282
7.4.4 CloudAttenuation 283
7.4.5 SignalFadingduetoRefraction 283
7.4.6 Ionosphere-relatedEffects 284
7.4.7 FadingduetoMultipathSignals 287
7.5 TechniquestoCounterPropagationEffects 290
7.5.1 AttenuationCompensationTechniques 290
7.5.2 DepolarizationCompensationTechniques 291
7.6 NoiseConsiderations 291
7.6.1 ThermalNoise 291
x Contents
7.6.2 NoiseFigure 292
7.6.3 NoiseTemperature 293
7.6.4 NoiseFigureandNoiseTemperatureofCascadedStages 294
7.6.5 AntennaNoiseTemperature 295
7.6.6 OverallSystemNoiseTemperature 299
7.7 Interference-relatedProblems 302
7.7.1 IntermodulationDistortion 303
7.7.2 InterferencebetweentheSatelliteandTerrestrialLinks 306
7.7.3 InterferenceduetoAdjacentSatellites 306
7.7.4 Cross-polarizationInterference 310
7.7.5 AdjacentChannelInterference 310
7.8 AntennaGain-to-NoiseTemperature(G/T)Ratio 314
7.9 LinkDesign 316
7.9.1 LinkDesignProcedure 317
7.9.2 LinkBudget 317
FurtherReading 320
Glossary 321
8 EarthStation 323
8.1 EarthStation 323
8.2 TypesofEarthStation 325
8.2.1 FixedSatelliteService(FSS)EarthStation 326
8.2.2 BroadcastSatelliteService(BSS)EarthStations 327
8.2.3 MobileSatelliteService(MSS)EarthStations 328
8.2.4 SingleFunctionStations 329
8.2.5 GatewayStations 330
8.2.6 Teleports 331
8.3 EarthStationArchitecture 331
8.4 EarthStationDesignConsiderations 332
8.4.1 KeyPerformanceParametres 333
8.4.2 EarthStationDesignOptimization 335
8.4.3 EnvironmentalandSiteConsiderations 336
8.5 EarthStationTesting 337
8.5.1 UnitandSubsystemLevelTesting 337
8.5.2 SystemLevelTesting 337
8.6 EarthStationHardware 343
8.6.1 RFEquipment 343
8.6.2 IFandBasebandEquipment 353
8.6.3 TerrestrialInterface 354
8.7 SatelliteTracking 357
8.7.1 SatelliteTrackingSystem–BlockDiagram 357
8.7.2 TrackingTechniques 357
8.8 SomeRepresentativeEarthStations 364
8.8.1 GoonhillySatelliteEarthStation 364
8.8.2 MadleyCommunicationsCentre 366
xi
8.8.3 MadridDeepSpaceCommunicationsComplex 366
8.8.4 CanberraDeepSpaceCommunicationsComplex 367
8.8.5 GoldstoneDeepSpaceCommunicationsComplex 368
8.8.6 HoneysuckleCreekTrackingStation 369
8.8.7 KaenaPointSatelliteTrackingStation 371
8.8.8 BukitTimahSatelliteEarthStation 371
8.8.9 INTELSATTeleportEarthStations 371
Glossary 373
PARTII SATELLITEAPPLICATIONS
9 CommunicationSatellites 377
9.1 IntroductiontoCommunicationSatellites 377
9.2 Communication-relatedApplicationsofSatellites 378
9.2.1 GeostationarySatelliteCommunicationSystems 379
9.2.2 Non-geostationarySatelliteCommunicationSystems 379
9.3 FrequencyBands 379
9.4 Payloads 379
9.4.1 TypesofTransponders 381
9.4.2 TransponderPerformanceParameters 382
9.5 SatelliteversusTerrestrialNetworks 383
9.5.1 AdvantagesofSatellitesOverTerrestrialNetworks 383
9.5.2 DisadvantagesofSatelliteswithRespecttoTerrestrial
Networks 384
9.6 SatelliteTelephony 385
9.6.1 Point-to-PointTrunkTelephoneNetworks 386
9.6.2 MobileSatelliteTelephony 386
9.7 SatelliteTelevision 388
9.7.1 ATypicalSatelliteTVNetwork 388
9.7.2 Satellite–CableTelevision 389
9.7.3 Satellite–LocalBroadcastTVNetwork 390
9.7.4 Direct-to-HomeSatelliteTelevision 391
9.8 SatelliteRadio 394
9.9 SatelliteDataCommunicationServices 394
9.9.1 SatelliteDataBroadcasting 394
9.9.2 VSATs(VerySmallApertureTerminals) 395
9.10 ImportantMissions 400
9.10.1 InternationalSatelliteSystems 400
9.10.2 RegionalSatelliteSystems 409
9.10.3 NationalSatelliteSystems 412
9.11 FutureTrends 412
9.11.1 DevelopmentofSatelliteConstellationsinLEOOrbits 414
9.11.2 Developmentof PersonalCommunicationServices(PCS) 414
9.11.3 Useof HigherFrequencyBands 414