Sandy Beaches as Endangered Ecosystems: Environmental Problems and Possible Assessment and Management Solutions

311 Pages·2021·27.607 MB·English

by  Sílvia Correia Gonçalves Fernandes, Susana Margarida de Freitas Ferreira

Sandy Beaches as

Endangered Ecosystems

Environmental Problems, Possible

Assessment and Management Solutions

Editors
Sílvia C. Gonçalves
and
Susana M.F. Ferreira
MARE, Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre

ESTM – IPLeiria, School of Tourism and Maritime Technology

Polytechnic of Leiria

Peniche, Portugal
Cover credit: Top photograph: Praia da Gralha, São Martinho do Porto, Alcobaça, Portugal
(photo by Susana M.F. Ferreira). Down photograph: Playa Las Galeras, Samaná, Dominican
Republic (photo by Sílvia C. Gonçalves)
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Gonçalves, Sílvia C., 1976- editor.
Title: Sandy beaches as endangered ecosystems : environmental problems and
possible assessment and management solutions / editors, Sílvia C.
Gonçalves and Susana M.F. Ferreira, MARE, Marine and Environmental
Sciences Centre ESTM - IPLeiria, School of Tourism and Maritime
Technology, Polytechnic of Leiria, Peniche, Portugal.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021029969 | ISBN 9780367147495 (hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Seashore ecology. | Coastal zone management. | Coastal
biodiversity conservation. | Endangered ecosystems.
Classification: LCC QH541.5.S35 S26 2021 | DDC 577.69/9--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021029969
ISBN: 978-0-367-14749-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-17258-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-05325-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9780429053252
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Shubham Creation
Preface
Who has never gazed at the idyllic sight of a sandy beach? For those who have
not, we hope that some day you will have the opportunity. For those who did…
have you ever wonder: Do we want our children and their progenies to experience
this same soothing feeling? These questions were lingering in our thoughts and
were our main drivers into preparing this book…
Sandy beaches are complex, dynamic, but also sensitive interface ecosystems
that fringe the largest proportion of the world’s coastlines. The physical
environment of the beach, characterized by the permanent interactions between
sand, waves, tides and winds, always in motion, has a profound effect on its
inhabitants. Due to this dynamism, living on these ecosystems is a very complex
task, notably in open oceanic beaches, where the exposure to environmental
changes is more pronounced. Sandy beach biota, especially the fauna, must keep
pace and fully adapt to harsh and complex cycles of changing environmental
conditions, displaying a wide array of adaptations, if they are to endure. The
low diversity of organisms observed in most sandy beaches, when compared for
instance to rocky shores, should therefore not be surprising. Another relevant
feature of the beach environment is the absence of large primary producers, such
as macroalgae and plants. Instead, benthic microflora and surf-zone phytoplankton
are the main primary producers, when present, and often represent small primary
production values. As such, these ecosystems are strongly dependent of irregular
inputs of allochthonous organic debris from both marine and terrestrial origins,
which frequently act as food subsidies, by fuelling their food webs.
Despite their barren appearance for the most oblivious, beaches have a high
natural value and represent unique habitats for several macrofaunal and meiofaunal
species, as well as feeding and/or reproduction grounds for some iconic animals,
such as birds, marine turtles and fish. Beaches offer diversified habitat possibilities
and may shelter a considerable diversity of organisms, even if in low biomass. In
fact, only a few species exhibit abundant populations in sandy beaches, especially
among macrofauna (e.g., sandhoppers and ocypodid crabs). These ecosystems also
iv Sandy Beaches as Endangered Ecosystems
have several other important ecological functions, such as their crucial contribution
in the decomposition of organic matter and in nutrients recycling, being functional
links between the terrestrial and the marine domains. The comprehension of these
features is extremely important to help decision makers opting for the most adequate
solution when problems arise, as well as raising awareness among common citizens
to adopt more ecological and sustainable behaviours. The example of the 2020’s
COVID-19 pandemic, during which some municipalities around the world executed
a sand disinfection with sodium hypochlorite (bleach) in public beaches. Unaware
that a sandy beach is a living entity, those who employed this strategy with good
intentions, contributed to an ecological crime. It is hoped that the information
provided by this book, as well as other similar publications, may reach public
opinion to avoid similar situations in the future.
From an anthropocentric perspective, beaches offer several goods and services
to humans. They are fishing areas for fish, shellfish and bait harvesting; offer
coastal protection from extreme storm surges; and keep a multitude of touristic
and recreational activities. Beaches are vital for tourism-based economies. In many
regions of the world (for instance, in the Mediterranean), these ecosystems are the
main asset that allows maintaining the tourism industry. Hence, tourism in coastal
zones and recreational activities on the beach have drastically intensified in the
last decades, acting as extra stressors, besides the ones derived from increased
urbanization in the coastline, caused by the growth and expansion of human
populations.
Presently, sandy beaches are also one of the most endangered ecosystems
on our planet. A vast array of human activities and infrastructures severely affect
these environments, especially in the most populated coastal areas. In fact, most
countries that have a straight connection with the sea, present a higher population
density near the coast than on their inland territory. For instance, the introduction
of urbanistic and touristic facilities on the beach and its surrounding areas, often
causes habitat degradation and fragmentation, disturbance of the ecological balance
in these natural areas, as well as simultaneously promoting beach erosion. On
the other hand, global climate changes and their consequences, such as retrieval
of the coastline driven by sea level rise, are already an imminent threat in several
coastal areas around the world.
In this context, monitoring and assessing the environmental disturbances
occurring in sandy beaches, and the responses of their different components (biotic
and abiotic), has become a priority, if adequate management and conservation
strategies are to be developed and implemented. Specific tools encompassing the
physical environment and the biota, at different levels of ecological organization,
as well as suitable management, conservation actions and programmes where the
ecologic, economic and social dimensions are comprehensively integrated, are
therefore pivotal. Relying on the vast expertise and understanding of a team with
internationally renowned scientists, who have joined us on this adventure, this
book aims to consolidate knowledge about these issues. It also intends to point
out future directions that can guide researchers, managers, stakeholders, policy
decision makers, plus graduation and post-graduation students, towards a more
sustainable path while working with sandy beaches. Only this way will we continue
Preface v
to enjoy nature and the environment that surround us, hopefully in a conscious
and respectful way.
Meanwhile, we still can have the privilege of putting our bare feet firmly in
the sand, feel its grains caress our soles, running in between our toes. We may
scrutinize the horizon, stare at the tranquilizing beauty of a sunset or a sunrise
on the beach (depending on where we stand) and be cradled by the sound of the
waves crashing into the shore. As we close our eyes and take a deep breath, we
may linger on the idea that tomorrow will be another day.
Editors
Sílvia C. Gonçalves
Peniche, Portugal
Susana M.F. Ferreira
Coimbra, Portugal

Acknowledgements
The editors would like to thank all the authors for their fruitful collaboration in
preparing this book. The authors’ notable contributory chapters, sharing of expertise
knowledge and diligent efforts to prepare them on the most comprehensive way,
were mainly appreciated.
In individual terms, SCG would like to thank her family for their encouragement
and unconditional support, whenever she predisposes to do something new, and all
her students interested in marine ecology for the soulful strength they give her,
which allowed to keep this flame alive. SMFF feels overwhelmed by the invitation
of her colleague SCG to get on board of this adventure, but also by the authors’
kind readiness to embrace the idea of materializing this book and compile current
information on sandy beaches. She is grateful to all of those (family, friends,
students, colleagues and peers) that during her life have contributed in some way
to carry on her passion for the sea and its life forms.
Finally, to all of those who will read or consult this book, the editors and authors
express their gratitude for your interest and hope that somehow the information
provided helps to contribute for the conservation of coastal environments.
Editors
Sílvia C. Gonçalves
Susana M.F. Ferreira

Contents

Preface iii
Acknowledgements vii
1. Sandy Beach Heterogeneity: Intertidal and Supralittoral
Communities 1
Leonardo L. Costa, Abílio Soares-Gomes and Ilana R. Zalmon
2. The Biology and Ecology of Sandy Beach Surf Zones 26
Jose R. Marin Jarrin, Alan L. Shanks and Jessica A. Miller
3. Human Impacts over Sandy Beaches 54
María Victoria Laitano, Nicolás Mariano Chiaradia

and Jesús Darío Nuñez

4. Urbanization of Coastal Areas: Loss of Coastal Dune
Ecosystems in Japan 89
Hajime Matsushima and Susana M.F. Ferreira
5. Strategies to Mitigate Coastal Erosion 107
Carlos Coelho, Ana Margarida Ferreira and Rita Pombo
6. Exploring the Sun and the Sea— Vulnerabilities and
Mitigation Tools Regarding Touristic and Recreational
Activities on Coastal and Beach Systems 133
João Paulo Jorge, Paulo F.C. Lourenço,

Verónica N. Oliveira and Ilaha Guliyeva

7. Validation and Use of Biological Metrics for the Diagnosis of
Sandy Beach Health 154
Jenyffer Vierheller Vieira and Carlos Alberto Borzone
8. Conservation Shortcuts: A Promisor Approach for
Impact Assessments and Management of Sandy Beaches 180
Leonardo Lopes Costa, Nina Aguiar Mothé,

Ariane da Silva Oliveira and Vitor Figueira Arueira