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SAMURAI TO SOLDIER
Remaking Military Service in Nineteenth-Century Japan
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D. Colin Jaundrill
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For my wife Adeline and my daughter Grace, whose love and patience made the
completion of this book possible.
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“So, then, the revolver triumphs over the sword; and this will probably make even the most childish
axiomatician comprehend that force is no mere act of the will, but requires very real preliminary
conditions before it can come into operation….”
—Friedrich Engels
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Contents
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py List of Illustrations
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bl Acknowledgments
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r Introduction
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U. 1. The Rise of “Western” Musketry, 1841–1860
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4. Instituting Universal Military Service, 1873–1876
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r 5. Dress Rehearsal: The Satsuma Rebellion, 1877
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pt 6. Organizational Reform and the Creation of the Serviceman, 1878–1894
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, Conclusion
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bl Glossary
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th Notes
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s Index
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Illustrations
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bl 1. Tokugawa and Meiji Japan: major domains (to 1871) and cities
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. Figures
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un 1. An inspection of Takashima Shirday’s musketry and gunnery training (1841)
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3. Sugoroku board illustrating the steps and orders for musket and bayonet drill (late Tokugawa,
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u probably Ansei, 1854–1860)
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4. Western-style [drill] twelve steps for loading (1868)
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ex 5. Utagawa Hiroshige II, Mishima, from the series Fifty-Three Stations of the Fan (1865)
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sh 6. Utagawa Yoshifuji, Military Drill of a Battalion (1867)
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p 7. Sugoroku board illustrating drill for line and skirmishing (1866)
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om 8. Utagawa Yoshitora, The Great Military Review (1870)
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Prdu the Emperor (1890)
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Acknowledgments
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py This book would not have been possible without the support of numerous institutions, colleagues, and
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e friends. An Institute of International Education (IIE) Fulbright Graduate Research Fellowship funded
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c fifteen months of research in Tokyo from 2005 to 2006, which provided the source materials for the
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ap project. From 2007 to 2008, a Junior Fellowship in Japan Studies provided by the Weather-head East
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o Asian Institute at Columbia University allowed me the time to draft the first version of the manuscript. As
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U. I began revising the manuscript for publication, a Committee to Aid Faculty Research (CAFR) grant from
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de Providence College supported an additional six weeks of research in Japan during the summer of 2012.
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d Finally, the School of Arts and Sciences at Providence College generously agreed to help finance the
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i procurement of image permissions for the book.
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p I am indebted to Carol Gluck, who supervised my research from the crystallization of my topic through
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us the final stages of the writing process. Her guidance was invaluable to both the conceptualization and the
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ai crafting of this book. I am also grateful to Nojima Yko of the University of Tokyo, who graciously took
f
pt the time to direct me toward the scholarship and archival sources that form the basis of this book. In
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e addition, I extend my gratitude to the scholars who provided feedback throughout the writing process.
,
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e Greg Pflugfelder reviewed several chapter drafts and was kind enough to give line-by-line feedback on
h
s
i
l my entire first draft. David Howell provided extremely valuable comments on early versions of chapters
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u
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e as well as the first full version of the manuscript. Edward Drea gave generously of his expertise on the
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m history of the Imperial Japanese Army. Finally, Volker Berghahn impressed upon me the importance of
o
r
f making my work accessible to scholars outside the Japan field. Thanks are also due to the professors who
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o
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s guided my academic career from my undergraduate years to the final stages of my graduate training:
s
i
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r Henry D. Smith II, David Lurie, Kim Brandt, Jordan Sand, Howard Spendelow, and Louisa Rubinfien.
e
p
t Institutions and individuals in Japan aided my work at every stage. Professors Yoshida Yutaka of
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it Hitotsubashi University and Tobe Ryichi of the National Defense Academy graciously took the time to
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rm introduce me to sources and archives during a 2004 research trip. Professor Hya Tru of the
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y Historiographical Institute at the University of Tokyo aided my efforts to locate and interpret late
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a
n Tokugawa military texts. The following archives and libraries provided a great deal of assistance: the
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se National Archives of Japan, the National Diet Library, the Military Archives at the National Institute for
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Pd
o Defense Studies, the Yasukuni Kaik Bunko, the Historiographical Institute, the Meiji Periodicals
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lly assistance, and friendship, especially Suzuki Tamon, Nakano Hiroki, Ikeda Yta, and the other members of
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or. Professor Nojima’s graduate seminar.
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6r In the United States, I owe a great deal of thanks to those who helped improve the final version of the
1e
0s
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r manuscript and facilitate its publication. I thank Phil Brown for his blessing on my inclusion of material
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tt
ghgh that draws on the same sources as an article I published in 2012 in Early Modern Japan: An
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pyl Interdisciplinary Journal. My fellow participants in the 2014 West Point Summer Seminar in Military
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History helped me view my work in more comparative terms. Ross Yelsey at the Weatherhead East Asian
Institute made the early stages of the publishing process smoother than I might have hoped. I also thank
Roger Haydon, my editor at Cornell University Press, for his patience in dealing with this first-time
author. Finally, I thank the two anonymous reviewers whose comments and suggestions helped make this
book better.
The following friends and colleagues offered feedback as well as material and emotional support
during the writing process: Adam Clulow, Alyssa Park, Elizabeth LaCouture, Jason Petrulis, Chelsea
.
aw Foxwell, Mathew Thompson, Li Chen, Matthew Augustine, Federico Marcon, Eric Han, Jisoo Kim,
l
ht Jimin Kim, Steve Wills, Reto Hoffman, Chad Diehl, Tim Yang, Abhishek Kaicker, Stacey Van Vleet,
g
i
r
y Christopher Craig, and Christopher Kobayashi. I thank my colleagues in the Department of History at
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Providence College, who have been a constant source of encouragement for the last few years. In
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l
b
a particular, Ted Andrews, Jen Illuzzi, Jeff Johnson, and Margaret Manchester provided feedback and
c
i
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pp support as I prepared the manuscript for publication. The interlibrary loan staff at Phillips Memorial
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or Library also saved my bacon on numerous occasions.
.
.S In conclusion, I thank my parents, David and Catherine Jaundrill, for their tireless support of my
U
er academic pursuits. I also am grateful for the emotional support of my sister, Kristin Jaundrill, as well as
d
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all the family members who offered their encouragement during a difficult process. Finally, I would be
d
e
t
t lost without my beloved wife, Adeline Wong, and my daughter, Grace Jaundrill. Ade-line’s unceasing
i
m
r
pe support and boundless patience made the completion of this book possible. Grace’s regular requests for
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se assistance with puzzles gave me much-needed respites from writing and served as a constant reminder of
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ir what matters most.
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is MAP 1 Tokugawa and Meiji Japan: major domains (to 1871) and cities
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Introduction
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py On December 5, 1872, the Meiji government’s Grand Council of State issued the Conscription
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e Pronouncement (Chhei Kokuyu), which declared the state’s intention to institute a blueprint for military
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c service unparalleled in Japanese history—or so the governing body suggested. In grandiloquent language,
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ap the Council castigated the dissipation of contemporary warriors and announced its intention to replace
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o them with a conscript army drawn from the entire populace: “warriors are not the warriors they once
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U. were, and the people are not the people they once were; all are equally the people of the imperial state.”1
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d This framing of the government’s new policy implied that elimination by fiat of the boundary between
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ed warrior and commoner was both unprecedented and irrevocable. In actuality, it was merely the midpoint
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mi in a much more complex and drawn-out process of military reform.
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p Few people experienced the complexity of the transformation of military service as thoroughly as tori
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s
u Keisuke. In another era in Japanese history, tori might have followed the family tradition of practicing
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a Chinese medicine as his father and grandfather had. Few would have expected a young man born into a
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p socially marginal household in a remote mountain village (just north of the western castle town of Ak) to
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c
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e command men in a major civil war or serve as a diplomat to a foreign power. That tori was able to
,
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he achieve both these feats was partly a matter of his skillful navigation of a tumultuous era; time and again,
s
i
bl he seemed to back the right intellectual trends at precisely the most advantageous moments. But it was
u
p
e also a matter of luck. Because tori came of age at a time when military service—and consequently, the
h
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m society in which it was grounded—was in the midst of transformation, he was able to abandon medicine
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in favor of a more ambitious path.
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o
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ss tori was born in 1833, at a moment when Japan—and the warriors who served as its military and
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m
er administrative elite—stood on the brink of revolutionary change. Since the early seventeenth century, the
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ut warrior government of the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868) had exercised effective control over foreign
o
h
it and domestic affairs within the archipelago. However, a rising tide of domestic discontent combined with
w
m
r the arrival of European and then American imperial powers in East Asia the 1840s and 1850s began to
o
f
y call into question Tokugawa leadership, thus upsetting the complex arrangements that characterized the
n
a
in shogunate’s handling of foreign and military affairs. It was a complicated time, but also a moment of
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esce opportunity for those—like tori—who were positioned to take advantage of it.
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y ro At the age of twelve, tori went to study at the Shizutani School, established by the daimyo of Okayama
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nt well-to-do rural families before returning to his home village for more practical training for a career in
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ly medicine. In the first of what would become a series of fortuitous encounters, the physician tasked with
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Cod. training tori introduced him to translations of European books on science, medicine, and botany.2 Before
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16er long, tori abandoned his training to attend the Osaka school of Ogata Kan, who specialized in training
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opll the command of Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Japan to press its demands for a commerce treaty.
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