safety evaluation of billboard advertisements on driver behavior in work zones

208 Pages·2013·3.27 MB·English

by  Patrick Fry

Safety Evaluation of Billboard Advertisements on Driver Behavior in Work Zones

A thesis presented to
the faculty of
the Russ College of Engineering and Technology of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Science

Patrick J. Fry
May 2013
© 2013 Patrick J. Fry. All Rights Reserved.
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This thesis titled
Safety Evaluation of Billboard Advertisements on Driver Behavior in Work Zones

by
PATRICK J. FRY

has been approved for
the Department of Civil Engineering
and the Russ College of Engineering and Technology by

Deborah S. McAvoy
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering

Dennis Irwin

Dean, Russ College of Engineering and Technology
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ABSTRACT
FRY, PATRICK J., M.S., May 2013, Civil Engineering
Safety Evaluation of Billboard Advertisements on Driver Behavior in Work Zones (207
pp.)
Director of Thesis: Deborah S. McAvoy
While the number of fatal crashes occurring in work zones has been declining
over the last few years, work zone safety is still considered to be a nationwide priority.
Recently, a work zone safety campaign consisting primarily of billboard advertisements
was found to be ineffective. Thus, a two-phase study was performed to determine how
the billboards could be improved to communicate more effectively the campaign’s safety
message to the public. The first phase consisted of a public opinion survey designed to
determine the preferred background and text color combination for the advertisement.
Survey responses were evaluated through statistical analyses and a yellow background
with black text is recommended for use in future campaign billboards. The second phase
consisted of a driving simulator study to examine the slogans and graphics used in the
advertisement along with the placement and orientation of the billboard with respect to
the driver. Driving performance and glance behaviors of the participants were monitored
throughout the simulated drive to determine what effect the billboards had on their
behavior. Based on statistical analyses of driving performance, no elements of the
billboard advertisements were found to improve safety on the roadway. Glance behaviors
were found to be significantly impacted by the presence of an advertisement, but were
not impacted by any particular element. Furthermore, as drivers made long glances to the
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billboards their ability to maintain lane position was negatively impacted. Ultimately,
billboard advertisements should be used alongside other approaches to improve work
zone safety through an effective campaign.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would first like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Deborah
McAvoy, for her continued support and encouragement throughout my Master of Science
program and into my professional career. I would not have succeeded in my graduate
studies without her guidance. Next, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr.
Eric Steinberg, Dr. Sang-Soo Kim, and Dr. Natalie Kruse Daniels, for their time and
assistance with the completion of my thesis research. I would also like to thank my fellow
researchers in the ORITE Safety and Human Factors Facility for their help in processing
the data throughout this research. Finally, I would like to thank my family, fiancée, and
friends for their constant love, encouragement, and support throughout my graduate and
professional careers.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 5
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... 8
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 2: Background ..................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Impact of Speeds in Work Zones ............................................................................ 14
2.2 Evaluating Safety Campaigns ................................................................................. 18
2.3 Use of Billboards in Safety Campaigns .................................................................. 22
2.4 Safety of Billboards ................................................................................................ 26
2.4.1 Impact on Glance Behavior ............................................................................. 26
2.4.2 Impact on Driving Performance ....................................................................... 37
Chapter 3: Public Survey Study ........................................................................................ 43
Chapter 4: Driving Simulator Study ................................................................................. 52
4.1 Selection of Methodology ....................................................................................... 52
4.2 Research Equipment Used ...................................................................................... 53
4.3 Institutional Review Board Process ........................................................................ 55
4.4 Design of Scenarios ................................................................................................ 57
4.4.1 Scenario #1 – Slogans ...................................................................................... 58
4.4.1 Scenario #2 – Graphics .................................................................................... 62
4.4.2 Scenario #3 – Placement and Orientation ........................................................ 63
4.5 Study Procedure ...................................................................................................... 65
4.6 Data Collection ....................................................................................................... 73
4.7 Sample Size Determination .................................................................................... 80
4.7.1 Determination for Speed .................................................................................. 81
4.7.2 Determination for Lane Position ...................................................................... 83
4.7.3 Determination for Acceleration and Deceleration ........................................... 84
4.7.4 Determination for Mean Fixation and Total Fixation ...................................... 85
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4.7.5 Determination for Number of Fixations........................................................... 88
4.7.6 Determination for Proportion of Fixation Duration ......................................... 89
4.7.7 Final Sample Size Determination .................................................................... 91
Chapter 5: Statistical Methodology .................................................................................. 93
5.1 Statistical Tests for Public Survey Study ................................................................ 93
5.2 Statistical Tests for Driving Simulator Study ......................................................... 97
Chapter 6: Results ........................................................................................................... 111
6.1 Public Survey Study .............................................................................................. 111
6.1.1 Increase Awareness of Work Zones............................................................... 114
6.1.2 Increase Caution in Work Zones .................................................................... 118
6.1.3 Billboard Seen Best in Daylight .................................................................... 123
6.1.3 Billboard Seen Best at Nighttime .................................................................. 126
6.1.4 Overview of the Statistical Analyses of Survey Responses ........................... 130
6.2 Driving Simulator Study ....................................................................................... 131
6.2.1 Scenario #1 – Slogans .................................................................................... 134
6.2.2 Scenario #2 – Graphics .................................................................................. 142
6.2.3 Scenario #3 – Placement and Orientation ...................................................... 146
6.2.4 Impact of Long Glances on Safety ................................................................. 148
Chapter 7: Conclusions ................................................................................................... 152
7.1 Public Survey Study .............................................................................................. 152
7.2 Driving Simulator Study ....................................................................................... 155
7.3 Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................ 162
References ....................................................................................................................... 164
Appendix A: Public Survey Study Materials .................................................................. 169
Appendix B: IRB Documents ......................................................................................... 173
Appendix C: Billboard Advertisements Used in Simulator Study ................................. 200
Appendix D: Results of the Games-Howell Tests on the Data Collected in the Driving
Simulator Study .............................................................................................................. 204
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LIST OF TABLES
Page

Table 1: Background and text color combinations used in surveys.................................. 44
Table 2: Slogans used in Scenario #1 ............................................................................... 59
Table 3: Placement and orientation combinations used in Scenario #3 ............................ 63
Table 4: Initial sample size determination for speed ........................................................ 82
Table 5: Initial sample size determination for lane position ............................................. 83
Table 6: Initial sample size determination for acceleration .............................................. 85
Table 7: Initial sample size determination for mean fixation ........................................... 87
Table 8: Initial sample size determination for total fixation ............................................. 87
Table 9: Initial sample size determination for number of fixations .................................. 89
Table 10: Initial sample size determination for proportion of fixation duration .............. 90
Table 11: Summary of initial sample size determination ................................................. 91
Table 12: Results of z-test for total population on increased awareness of work zones 115
Table 13: Results of z-test by age group for increased awareness of work zones .......... 115
Table 14: Results of z-test by gender for increased awareness of work zones ............... 116
Table 15: Results of z-test by driving experience for increased awareness of work zones
......................................................................................................................................... 116
Table 16: Results of z-test by knowledge of rules for increased awareness of work zones
......................................................................................................................................... 118
Table 17: Results of z-test for total population on increased caution in work zones ..... 119
Table 18: Results of z-test by age group for increased caution in work zones ............... 120
Table 19: Results of z-test by gender for increased caution in work zones .................... 120
Table 20: Results of z-test by driving experience for increased caution in work zones . 121
Table 21: Results of z-test by knowledge of rules for increased awareness of work zones
......................................................................................................................................... 123
Table 22: Results of z-test for total population on billboard seen best in daylight ........ 124
Table 23: Results of z-test by age group for billboard seen best in daylight .................. 124
Table 24: Results of z-test by gender for billboard seen best in daylight ....................... 125
Table 25: Results of z-test by driving experience for billboard seen best in daylight .... 125
Table 26: Results of z-test for total population on billboard seen best at nighttime ...... 127
Table 27: Results of z-test by age group for billboard seen best at nighttime ................ 128
Table 28: Results of z-test by gender for billboard seen best at nighttime ..................... 128
Table 29: Results of z-test by driving experience for billboard seen best at nighttime .. 129
Table 30: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Pre-Work Zone of
Scenario #1...................................................................................................................... 135
Table 31: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Advanced Warning
Area of Scenario #1 ........................................................................................................ 139
Table 32: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Work Zone of
Scenario #1...................................................................................................................... 140
Table 33: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Pre-Work Zone of
Scenario #2...................................................................................................................... 143
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Table 34: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Advanced Warning
Area of Scenario #2 ........................................................................................................ 145
Table 35: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in Work Zone of
Scenario #2...................................................................................................................... 146
Table 36: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on driver behavior in approaching the
billboards in Scenario #3 ................................................................................................ 147
Table 37: Results of the one-way ANOVA tests on total variation in lane position while
participants were glancing at the billboards by scenario ................................................ 150
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page

Figure 1. Billboard advertisement used in Cleveland. ..................................................... 43
Figure 2. Driving simulator located in ORITE Safety and Human Factors Facility. ....... 54
Figure 3. Sample billboard advertisement used in Scenario #1. ...................................... 60
Figure 4. Work zone configuration used in Scenario #1. ................................................. 61
Figure 5. Example of a face model created using the faceLab 5 eye-tracking system. .... 70
Figure 6. Public survey responses by age group. ........................................................... 112
Figure 7. Proportions for the total population on increased awareness of work zones. . 114
Figure 8. Proportions for the total population on increased caution in work zones. ...... 119
Figure 9. Proportions for the total population on billboard seen best in daylight. ......... 123
Figure 10. Proportions for the total population on billboard seen best at nighttime. ..... 127
Figure 11. Mean values for lane position in the Pre-Work Zone of Scenario #1. .......... 137
Figure 12. Mean values for number of fixations in the Pre-Work Zone of Scenario #1. 138
Figure 13. Results of post-test questionnaire on recalling the slogans used. ................. 141