RUGERINYANGE 2016 Traditional and hybrid leadership

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TRADITIONAL & HYBRID LEADERSHIP STYLES IN RWANDA
Examining the common leadership styles, influencing factors, and culture in post-genocide
Rwanda.
Map 1: Administrative map of Rwanda
NSHUTI RUGERINYANGE
(0612436)
DBA 2016

TRADITIONAL & HYBRID LEADERSHIP STYLES IN RWANDA
Examining the common leadership styles, influencing factors, and culture in post-genocide Rwanda.
NSHUTI Rugerinyange
(0612436)
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the
Robert Gordon University
for the degree of Doctor of Business Administration
Supervisory team:
Dr. Robert Halsall (Principal)
Dr. Yvonne Turner
Professor Rita Marcella
August 2016
Keywords: Leadership styles, Cultural Influence, Rwandaliens, Rwandigenous, Ubuntu, Indaba
Copyright 2016, ®Nshuti Rugerinyange
Acknowledgements
This thesis is a culmination of more than half a decade research journey in obtaining a doctoral
certification at the Robert Gordon University. It is a milestone in my professional path, and an
introduction to the world of research. The formation of research questions, the interviewing of
people and interrogation of data has been the most eye-opening experience in my adult life.
This research has been seen through to completion with the support and encouragement of my
Principal Supervisor and Friend, Dr. Robert Halsall, whose wish to see me succeed made this work
was possible.
In addition, thanks Dr. Yvonne Turner and Professor Rita Marcella for being willing to read my
drafts, and offering your support over the course of this research.
Dr. David Jones, thank you for helping me with research progress interviews and I am grateful for
your positive words of encouragement. I am also honored that you accepted to be on my
examiners team.
Faculty members of the Business School were very kind enough to help whenever I approached
them, and I acknowledge them all. My thanks go to Mugabo Steven (Mbombo) who helped with
the typing in the early stages of the thesis.
My sincere gratitude goes to my mother Nyirantore Flavia for her darling friendship, my brothers,
sisters and the entire Gitore family for your encouragement and support. For lack of proper words
(in English) to express my gratitude, I say “mugire amahoro, you are most special to me”!
Life has a way of building wisdom by making us stumble in our paths, so that we get up, and go
on with more care and speed. My admission of guilt goes to my young family - Nshuti Enie Neil
(10years), Nshuti Hans Junior (9year) and Nshuti Ralph (7years) - for walking out on you at the
time you needed me most. My pursuit for a better life for you took me down many uncharted
paths. I am really sorry my little souls. You are the only ones in my world, I will always give you
my love.
This piece of work is dedicated to the man whose name (Rugerinyange) I proudly associate with.
The man I wish had live a little longer to be interview for this research. His insights of the Rwandan
culture influenced me to diverge from my Engineering background to venture into cultural
anthropology.

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Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
1. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 11
1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 11
1.2. Background to the Rwandan cultural context ............................................................................ 11
1.3. Background to the research ........................................................................................................ 13
1.4. The Background to previous research ........................................................................................ 14
1.4.1. Previous research on leadership style ................................................................................ 14
1.4.2. Previous research on cultural theories ............................................................................... 18
1.5. Key concepts ............................................................................................................................... 20
1.6. Establishing the research problem.............................................................................................. 21
1.7. Statement of the Research questions ......................................................................................... 22
1.8. The aims of the research ............................................................................................................. 23
1.9. Objectives of this research .......................................................................................................... 23
1.10. Overview of research design and methods to address the research questions ......................... 24
1.11. Summary of the chapter ............................................................................................................. 25
2. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 26
2.1. Overview of Leadership theories literature ................................................................................ 26
2.2. Leadership theories and models ................................................................................................. 29
2.2.1. Traits theory ........................................................................................................................ 30
2.2.2. Demographic ....................................................................................................................... 31
2.2.3. Task competence ................................................................................................................ 32
2.2.3.1 Interpersonal attributes .................................................................................................. 33
2.2.3.2 Relative validity of leader traits ...................................................................................... 33
2.2.4. Behavior theories ................................................................................................................ 35
2.3. Criticism of the behavior theory ................................................................................................. 37
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2.4 Theories associated with leadership ........................................................................................... 38
2.4.1. Leadership versus Management.......................................................................................... 38
2.4.2. Situational leadership .......................................................................................................... 41
2.4.3. Contingency Theories .......................................................................................................... 43
2.4.4. The Ohio State and University of Michigan leadership models .......................................... 44
2.4.5. Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid .................................................................................. 45
2.4.6. Fiedler's contingency theory ............................................................................................... 47
2.4.7. Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory ............................................................... 48
2.4.8. The Tannenbaum/Schmidt continuum of leader ship theory ............................................. 48
2.4.9. Transformational Leadership Theories ................................................................................ 50
2.5. Culture and leadership/organisational behavior ......................................................................... 52
2.6. What is culture? ........................................................................................................................... 52
2.6.1. Overview of the literature on the relationship of culture to leadership ............................. 52
2.6.2. Traditional Leadership and Culture in Africa ....................................................................... 55
2.6.3. Ubuntu Philosophy .............................................................................................................. 56
2.6.4. Culture of Indaba ................................................................................................................. 58
2.6.5. Values of Communalism ...................................................................................................... 59
2.6.6. Values of Human relations .................................................................................................. 60
2.6.7. Values of collective responsibilities..................................................................................... 61
2.6.8. Values of participatory leadership ....................................................................................... 62
2.6.9. Value of sacredness of life ................................................................................................... 63
2.6.10. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 64
2.7 Culture and leadership in Rwanda............................................................................................... 65
2.8. A review of culture theories ........................................................................................................ 68
2.8.1. Culture as values system/cognitive system (Hofstede) ....................................................... 70
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2.8.1.1 Power distance ................................................................................................................ 72
2.8.1.2. Uncertainty avoidance .................................................................................................... 73
2.8.1.3. Individualism versus collectivism .................................................................................... 75
2.8.1.4. Masculinity versus Femininity ......................................................................................... 76
2.8.1.5. Long-term versus short-term orientation ....................................................................... 78
2.8.1.6. Indulgence versus restraint ............................................................................................. 78
2.8.2. National cultures and Organisational cultures.................................................................... 80
2.8.2.1. Process versus result-oriented (organisational) cultures ............................................... 81
2.8.2.2 Employee oriented versus Job-oriented (organisational) cultures ................................. 82
2.8.2.3. Parochial versus Professional (organisational) cultures ................................................. 83
2.8.2.4. Open versus closed (organisational) systems ................................................................. 83
2.8.2.5 Loose versus tight control ............................................................................................... 83
2.8.2.6. Normative versus Pragmatic cultures ............................................................................. 84
2.8.3. Cultures as communication systems ................................................................................... 85
2.8.3.1. Context ............................................................................................................................ 86
2.8.3.2. Personal space................................................................................................................. 91
2.8.3.3. Time ................................................................................................................................. 92
2.8.4. Culture as communication .................................................................................................. 93
2.8.5. Communication as culture .................................................................................................. 94
2.8.6. Culture as a symbolic/mythical system (Malinowski, Levi-Strauss, Geertz) ....................... 96
2.8.7. Emic and etic views of culture .......................................................................................... 100
2.8.8. GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness) ........................ 101
2.9. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 102
3. CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 103
3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 103
3.2. Epistemological Approaches ..................................................................................................... 105
3.3. Situating this research within the literature ............................................................................. 107
3.4. Selection of Participants ........................................................................................................... 109
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3.5. Justification for selected participants ........................................................................................ 113
3.6. Definition of sectors and types of organization in sample ........................................................ 114
3.7 Definition of middle managers .................................................................................................. 115
3.8 Recruitment of participants ....................................................................................................... 116
3.9 Sample stratification variables .................................................................................................. 117
3.10. Approach to data collection ...................................................................................................... 118
3.11. Introduction to different interview approaches ........................................................................ 119
3.12. The narrative interview ............................................................................................................. 122
3.13. Ethical issues and Research integrity......................................................................................... 125
3.14. Reflections on the interview practice ........................................................................................ 126
3.15. Scope of the research ................................................................................................................ 126
3.16. Primacy of evidence in the research ......................................................................................... 127
3.17. Recruitment of participants in the research ............................................................................. 127
3.18. Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 128
3.19. Grounded Theory approach to the research ............................................................................. 129
3.20. Inductive approach .................................................................................................................... 131
3.20.1 Coding ................................................................................................................................ 132
3.21. Reflections on validity of the process ........................................................................................ 137
3.22. Summary of the chapter ............................................................................................................ 138
4. CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF DATA ......................................................................................... 139
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 139
4.2 The Sample ................................................................................................................................ 139
4.2.1 Paternalistic leadership approach ..................................................................................... 140
4.2.2 Nepotism, cronyism and/or favouritism ........................................................................... 142
4.2.3 Task-oriented leadership ................................................................................................... 143
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4.2.3 Team-oriented leadership ................................................................................................. 145
4.2.4 Hybrid Leadership style ..................................................................................................... 148
4.2.5 Self-protective (and group-protective) style ..................................................................... 152
4.3 Factors Influencing Leadership style ......................................................................................... 153
4.3.1 Formal training/Education ................................................................................................ 155
4.3.2 Informal education/family upbringing .............................................................................. 157
4.3.3 Professional experience .................................................................................................... 160
4.3.4 Organizational policies and laws ....................................................................................... 162
4.4 Culture themes/dimensions ...................................................................................................... 165
4.4.1 Collectivism /in-group collectivism ................................................................................... 166
4.4.2 Performance Orientation / High context .......................................................................... 170
4.4.3 Power distance .................................................................................................................. 172
4.4.4 Traditional practice ................................................................................................................... 174
4.4.5 Assertiveness ............................................................................................................................. 176
4.4.6 Humane orientation .................................................................................................................. 178
4.4.7 Gender egalitarianism ............................................................................................................... 179
4.4.8 Institutional Collectivism ........................................................................................................... 181
4.4.9 Future Orientation .................................................................................................................... 183
4.5 Differences in leadership styles in the sample ...................................................................... 184
4.6 Summary of statements used to describe Rwandan culture .................................................... 186
5. CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................... 191
5.1 Overview of the thesis .............................................................................................................. 191
5.2 The impact of Rwanda’s history on current leadership styles .................................................. 192
5.3 Discussion of findings ................................................................................................................ 193
5.3.1 Leadership styles in a cultural context .............................................................................. 193
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