Table Of ContentROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF MOTOR
CONTROL AND MOTOR LEARNING
The Routledge Handbook of Motor Control and Motor Learning is the fi rst book to offer a
comprehensive survey of neurophysiological, behavioural and biomechanical aspects of motor function.
Adopting an integrative approach, it examines the full range of key topics in contemporary human
movement studies, explaining motor behaviour in depth from the molecular level to behavioural
consequences.
The book contains contributions from the world’s leading experts in motor control and motor
learning, and is composed of fi ve thematic parts:
• Theories and models
• Basic aspects of motor control and learning
• Motor control and learning in locomotion and posture
• Motor control and learning in voluntary actions
• Challenges in motor control and learning
Mastering and improving motor control may be important in sports, but it becomes even more relevant
in rehabilitation and clinical settings, where the prime aim is to regain motor function. Therefore, the
book addresses not only basic and theoretical aspects of motor control and learning but also applied areas
like robotics, modelling and complex human movements. This book is both a defi nitive subject guide and
an important contribution to the contemporary research agenda. It is, therefore, important reading for
students, scholars and researchers working in sports and exercise science, kinesiology, physical therapy,
medicine and neuroscience.
Albert Gollhofer is Professor and Head of the Department of Sport Sciences at the University of
Freiburg, Germany. He is former President of the European College of Sport Science and of the German
Society of Biomechanics.
Wolfgang Taube is Professor and Head of the Movement and Sport Science Department at the
University of Fribourg in Switzerland. He is a member of the national research council Switzerland and
executive member of the Swiss Society of Sport.
Jens Bo Nielsen is Professor of Human Motor Control at the Institute of Exercise and Sport Sciences
& Institute of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. He is head of
the research group Copenhagen Neural Control of Movement.
http://avaxhome.ws/blogs/ChrisRedfield
ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF
MOTOR CONTROL AND
MOTOR LEARNING
Edited by Albert Gollhofer, Wolfgang Taube
and Jens Bo Nielsen
First published 2012
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2012 Albert Gollhofer, Wolfgang Taube and Jens Bo Nielsen
The right of the editors to be identifi ed as the authors of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Routledge handbook of motor control and motor learning / edited by
Albert Gollhofer Wolfgang Taube and Jens Bo Nielsen.
p. cm.
ISBN 978–0–415–66960–3 (hbk) — ISBN 978–0–203–13274–6 (ebk)
1. Motor learning—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Motor control—Handbooks,
manuals, etc. I. Gollhofer, Albert. II. Taube, Wolfgang. III. Nielsen, Jens Bo.
BF295.R68 2013
152.3'34—dc23
2012019652
ISBN: 978–0–415–66960–3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978–0–203–13274–6 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Refi neCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk
CONTENTS
List of fi gures and tables viii
Acknowledgements xii
Introduction 1
PART I
Theories and models 5
1 Theoretical models of motor control and motor learning 7
Adrian M. Haith and John W. Krakauer
2 What can we learn from animal models? 29
Eric M. Rouiller
3 Postural control by disturbance estimation and compensation
through long-l oop responses 50
Thomas Mergner
4 Motor learning explored with myoelectric and neural interfaces 71
Andrew Jackson and Kianoush Nazarpour
5 Biomechanical and neuromechanical concepts for legged
locomotion: Computer models and robot validation 90
Andre Seyfarth, Sten Grimmer, Daniel Häufl e, Horst-Moritz Maus,
Frank Peuker and Karl-Theodor Kalveram
v
Contents
PART II
Basic aspects of motor control and learning 111
6 Visual activation of short latency reinforcement mechanisms in
the basal ganglia 113
Nicolas Vautrelle, Mariana Leriche and Peter Redgrave
7 The role of augmented feedback in human motor learning 135
Christian Leukel and Jesper Lundbye-Jensen
8 Neuroscientifi c aspects of implicit motor learning in sport 155
Frank Zhu, Jamie Poolton and Rich Masters
9 Mirror neurons and imitation 175
Stefano Rozzi, Giovanni Buccino and Pier F. Ferrari
PART III
Motor control and learning in locomotion and posture 195
10 Neural control of walking 197
Michael J. Grey, Laurent Bouyer and Jens Bo Nielsen
11 Adaptive plasticity of gait 213
Laurent Bouyer, Michael J. Grey and Jens Bo Nielsen
12 Motor control and motor learning in stretch-s hortening
cycle movements 231
Wolfgang Taube, Christian Leukel and Albert Gollhofer
13 Postural control and balance training 252
Wolfgang Taube and Albert Gollhofer
PART IV
Motor control and learning in voluntary actions 281
14 Body schema, illusions of movement and body perception 283
Mark Schram Christensen
15 Voluntary movement: Limitations and consequences of the
anatomy and physiology of motor pathways 304
John C. Rothwell and Jens Bo Nielsen
16 Acute and long-t erm neural adaptations to training 319
Jacques Duchateau, Tibor Hortobágyi and Roger M. Enoka
vi
Contents
PART V
Challenges in motor control and learning 351
17 Motor control and motor learning under fatigue conditions 353
Janet L. Taylor
18 Movement disorders: Implications for the understanding of motor
control 384
Michèle Hubli and Volker Dietz
Index 409
vii
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figures
1.1 Comparison of effort and endpoint variability costs for open- loop arm
and eye movements. 13
1.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation of hand position from visual and
proprioceptive estimates. 19
1.3 Adaptation as Bayesian estimation. 23
2.1 Schematic representation of the major motor cortical areas in
non-h uman primates, as seen on a lateral view of the left hemisphere
and the right hemisphere. 31
2.2 (a) Mean reaction times obtained from a macaque monkey
performing detection of acoustic stimuli, or of visual stimuli
or to simultaneous presentation of the two sensory modalities.
(b) Cartoon illustrating the scenario of a possible fast transmission
of information from sensory cortices to premotor cortex, via the
thalamus. 39
3.1 Schematic representation of center of mass, and center of pressure. 52
3.2 Vestibular–neck interaction and re-i nterpretation in terms of coordinate
transformation. 54
3.3 Servo control model. 61
3.4 Servo control model extended by long latency refl ex loops for
disturbance estimation and compensation (‘DEC’) model. 62
3.5 More detailed version of DEC model. 63
3.6 Emergence of movement synergy and postural adjustment from
hierarchical DEC control (extended to include the hip joints in addition
to the ankle joints). 64
3.7 Picture of postural control robot Posturob II (2 DOF, hip and ankle
joints). 65
3.8 Comparison of postural responses between human and robot
experiments. 66
4.1 Exploring abstract sensorimotor learning with a myoelectric interface. 73
viii
List of fi gures and tables
4.2 When holding an object steady, the net force on the object is more
important than the absolute force exerted by either fi nger or thumb
muscles. 78
4.3 Exploring fl exible control of synergies using a myoelectric interface. 80
4.4 Spike- triggered averaging reveals monosynaptic facilitation of muscles
via the corticospinal pathway. 82
4.5 Divergence and convergence in the corticospinal system allows fl exible
control of muscle synergies. 83
4.6 S chematic of hierarchal redundancy within the motor system. 84
4.7 Schematic of a Brain–Machine Interface experiment. 86
5.1 (a) Experimental evidence for spring- like leg behavior in human
walking and running provided by mean leg force vs. leg length
traces of 21 subjects. (b) The bipedal SLIP model predicts walking
and running patterns based on the assumption of spring- like leg
behavior. (c) Stable gait patterns can be characterized by three
parameters. 91
5.2 (a) Ground reaction forces of a 14-month- old child walking several steps
on an instrumented treadmill. (b) Ground reaction forces of a person
with long-t erm unilateral leg amputation using three different kinds of
knee joints. 94
5.3 Asymmetric walking described in the bipedal SLIP model. 95
5.4 Stability in spring-m ass hopping with variable leg parameters k (t) and
L (t) during contact. 97
0
5.5 The VPP concept. 98
5.6 (a) Extension of the SLIP model to 3D running. (b) Predicted region of
3D stable running. 99
5.7 Model evolution: the path from a reductive model to more elaborated
representative models for human hopping. 102
5.8 (a) Schematic approach to legged locomotion based on three functional
levels. (b) Extension of this approach to quadrupedal locomotion. 104
5.9 Conceptual robots to investigate the interplay of body mechanics and
muscle function in hopping. 105
6.1 Principal components of the mammalian basal ganglia. 114
6.2 Cortico-b asal ganglia- cortical loops in animals and humans. 115
6.3 Selective disinhibition within the re-e ntrant parallel looped architecture
of the basal ganglia represents a mechanism for selection. 117
6.4 A neural network confi gured to determine agency and the discovery of
novel actions. 125
6.5 Separate mechanisms of reinforcement could bias section within the
re- entrant parallel looped architecture of the basal ganglia. 127
7.1 Types of feedback. 136
7.2 Augmented feedback. 137
7.3 Dimensions of augmented feedback. 141
8.1 The location of the brain regions of interest for studies using
EEG methodology to investigate cortical activity during
motor performance. 158
8.2 (a) A visual representation of waveform patterns from two exemplar
trials that participants tracked during practice trials. (b) Laparoscopic
ix
List of fi gures and tables
skills training set-u p. (c) Electroencephalographic alpha T3–Fz and
T4–Fz coherence in the retention test. 163
8.3 (a) Electroencephalographic alpha2 T3–Fz and T4–Fz coherence across
the four second period prior to ball strike in the retention test. (b) Golf
putting set- up. 164
8.4 Electroencephalographic alpha2 T3–Fz coherence across the four second
period prior to ball strike in the retention test and psychological stress
transfer test. 166
8.5 Electroencephalographic alpha2 T3–Fz and T4–Fz coherence during
putting performance for participants with low and high conscious motor
processing scores. 167
9.1 Lateral and mesial views of the monkey brain showing the parcellation
of the agranular frontal and posterior parietal cortices. 176
9.2 Goal coding in F5 motor neurons. 177
9.3 Examples of F5 mirror neurons. 179
9.4 (a) Paradigm used for the motor task. (b) Paradigm used for the visual
task. (c) Discharge of the neuron during execution (left) and observation
(right) of the two actions. 181
9.5 Cortical areas active during observation for imitation. 189
10.1 Human walking. 199
10.2 Schematic view of the neural control of walking. 200
10.3 State dependent refl ex modulation. 201
10.4 Soleus EMG responses evoked by sudden perturbations during walking
in human participants. 203
10.5 Gait pattern evoked in the cat by MLR stimulation. 205
10.6 Comparison of TA stretch responses during the walking cycle and
during tonic dorsifl exion in a sitting participant. 207
11.1 Foot in the hole protocol. 215
11.2 LGS denervation in the spinal cat. 217
11.3 Elastic force fi eld adaptation protocol. 219
11.4 Phase-specifi c carry-over of force fi eld adaptation aftereffects. 221
11.5 Example of force fi eld adaptation with pseudorandomly
inserted catch trials. 222
11.6 Effects of elastic force fi eld adaptation duration and force fi eld intensity
on aftereffects duration. 224
11.7 Force fi eld adaptation with catch trials in a non-naïve subject. 224
12.1 Evidence of spinal stretch refl ex activity during hopping on a moveable platform. 235
12.2 Changes in EMG pattern due to modulation of drop height. 238
12.3 Interaction of feedforward and feedback control during
stretch-s hortening cycle movement. 241
12.4 The parameterization of the internal model is dependent on the setting
of the task. 243
12.5 Drop height specifi c training adaptations of the neuromuscular activity. 247
13.1 Subjects stood quietly with or without body support. 263
13.2 Interrelation of cortical plasticity and stance stability. 268
13.3 Balance training induced adaptations assessed during postural tasks. 269
13.4 Motor tasks in which subjects were measured before and after balance
training. 271
x
