Table Of Content"ROCKS AND STORMS I'LL FEAR NO MORE":
ANGLO-AMERICAN MARITIME MEMORIALIZATION, 1700 - 1940
A Dissertation
by
DAVID JAMES STEWART
Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of
Texas A&M University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
May 2004
Major Subject: Anthropology
"ROCKS AND STORMS I'LL FEAR NO MORE":
ANGLO-AMERICAN MARITIME MEMORIALIZATION, 1700 - 1940
A Dissertation
by
DAVID JAMES STEWART
Submitted to Texas A&M University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Approved as to style and content by:
_____________________________ _____________________________
Sylvia A. Grider Kevin J. Crisman
(Co-Chair of Committee) (Co-Chair of Committee)
_____________________________ _____________________________
Thomas A. Green James C. Bradford
(Member) (Member)
_____________________________
David L. Carlson
(Head of Department)
May 2004
Major Subject: Anthropology
iii
ABSTRACT
"Rocks and Storms I'll Fear No More":
Anglo-American Maritime Memorialization, 1700 - 1940. (May 2004)
David James Stewart, B.A., Baylor University;
M.A., Texas A&M University
Co-Chairs of Advisory Committee: Dr. Sylvia A. Grider
Dr. Kevin J. Crisman
Nautical archaeology has made remarkable advances since its inception half a
century ago, but one area in need of more attention is the examination of cultural
aspects of seafaring. This dissertation advances understanding of eighteenth- through
early-twentieth century British and American maritime culture by exploring traditional
memorialization practices. Interpretations are based primarily on analysis of 412
maritime memorials recorded during two archaeological surveys in Great Britain and
the United States. In addition, primary accounts from the Age of Sail are utilized to
place maritime memorialization into its proper cultural and historical context.
Research reveals three major themes in Anglo-American maritime
memorialization. First, memorials show a striking concern for the dangers and
hardships of life at sea. Numerous memorials describe the perils of the natural world
and the group values that mariners developed to cope with the ever-present possibility
of sudden death. Such values include attention to duty, courage, group loyalty, self-
sacrifice, and pride.
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Second, maritime communities faced the problem of commemorating those
who never returned from the sea. Many sailors were lost at sea or died aboard ship or
in distant lands. In the vast majority of such cases, the body was never returned home,
and many did not receive proper burial. As a result, family members and fellow sailors
created memorials to honor the lost and to symbolically lay the deceased to rest.
Evidence indicates, however, that such attempts were not entirely satisfactory. Many
epitaphs lament the fact that empty graves cannot provide an adequate substitute for
missing bodies.
Finally, investigation revealed a significant increase in religious sentiment on
maritime memorials from the mid-nineteenth century until the end of the Age of Sail.
It is suggested that the increase in maritime religious sentiment was linked to
nineteenth-century religious reform movements. The prevalence of religious imagery
and inscriptions on maritime memorials during this time, however, probably does not
indicate that most sailors became religious. Rather, most religious maritime memorials
were erected by sailors' families. This suggests that maritime families turned to
religion as a source of comfort when faced with the deaths of loved ones at sea.
v
For Heidi
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This project could never have been completed without the help and support of
many people. First, I would like to thank the members of my doctoral committee:
Sylvia Grider, Kevin Crisman, Tom Green, and James Bradford. Dr. Grider opened
my eyes to the wonderful world of folklore, which provided perspectives that I had
been searching for all along. One cannot understand maritime life without an
appreciation of nautical technology and terminology, and my knowledge of both has
been greatly enhanced by Dr. Crisman. In addition, his encyclopedic knowledge of
primary accounts from the Age of Sail provided sources for many of the quotes used in
this dissertation. Dr. Green helped me find my way through the tangled web of
meanings that comprise semiotics and symbolic anthropology. Never before have I
studied anything so difficult, but few things have been as rewarding either. Dr.
Bradford helped me better understand the nature of historical research and the "big
picture" of global seafaring during the Age of Sail. To each of these scholars I give my
thanks for helping make this a much better study.
Numerous teachers and professors helped shape the course of my career. Judy
Scott and James Vardaman first stimulated my interest in English literature, history,
and culture. It has also been my privilege to work with many other talented
archaeologists and anthropologists. I would especially like to thank Jennifer Moody,
John Fox, Fred Hocker, Fred van Doorninck, Jr., George F. Bass, Cemal Pulak, Donny
Hamilton, and Paul Goldberg. While I never had the opportunity to work with them
personally, my anthropological perspective has been heavily influenced by Henry
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Glassie, V. Gordon Childe, David Clarke, James Deetz, and Clifford Geertz. It has
been both difficult and rewarding over the years to read their scholarship and learn
from these great thinkers.
Many other friends and colleagues enriched my graduate experience. Matthew
Pridemore, Daria Merwin, and Scott McLaughlin have been my friends since my first
days in the Nautical Archaeology Program. George Marquardt, Glenn Grieco, Steve
Thornton, Christine Powell, and Bill Charlton have all provided good fellowship over
the years. Wayne Smith lent valuable assistance with my application when I decided to
return to Texas A&M to complete my doctorate, and also helped with the creation of a
poster for the American Folklore Society meeting. Helen Dewolf took the time to talk
with me about maritime memorials and burial at sea. John Eastlund provided
numerous articles, references, and links to maritime web sites that opened up new
avenues for my research. The Anthropology Department staff at Texas A&M,
especially Karen Taylor and Don Delucia, were always helpful. In Boston, Tuğba
Tanyeri-Erdemir and Aykan Erdemir helped make life as a graduate student much
more bearable. I am also indebted to them for providing a place to stay while I was
conducting dissertation fieldwork in New England.
My education and research would not have been possible without the support of
many family members. My parents, Lesley and George Stewart, provided unflagging
support and love over the years. My nana, Dora Coulter, a world-traveler in her own
right, sparked my interest in visiting other lands. An inheritance from my
grandparents, Mildred and George Stewart, paid for the fieldwork in England. Thanks
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grandma and grandpa, I think I used the money well. Thanks also to my sister Suzanne
and brother-in-law Darren Keck for much laughter over the years, and to my parents-
in-law, Anne and Paul Luchsinger, for their encouragement. Finally, nothing that I do
would be possible without the love of my family: Heidi, O. George, and Hazel, you are
the best part of my life.
Last but certainly not least, special thanks to Tony, Jane, Donald, and especially
Vadinho:
You do not travel, but your mind does
You are here, but the other you isn't.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xiv
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. xix
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1
The Andacollo ..................................................................... 1
Danger and Death in Seafaring ........................................... 1
The Natural World .................................................. 2
Disease .................................................................... 5
Accidents ................................................................ 8
Deaths in Action ..................................................... 10
Maritime Mortality Rates .................................................... 11
The Study of Maritime Life ................................................ 13
The Andacollo, Revisited .................................................... 16
Spatial and Chronological Framework ............................... 20
Note on Terminology .......................................................... 21
II THE STUDY OF DEATH AND MEMORIALIZATION: A
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................ 22
A Historical Framework for the Study of Death ................. 23
Rituals of Death and Memorialization ................................ 30
The Material Culture of Death ............................................ 36
Summary ............................................................................. 47
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CHAPTER Page
III ANGLO-AMERICAN MARINERS AS AN OCCUPATIONAL
FOLK GROUP ............................................................................... 49
Theory of Folk Groups ....................................................... 49
Who is a Sailor? How the Folk Group Defined Itself ......... 52
Age .......................................................................... 52
Gender ..................................................................... 55
Race and Ethnicity .................................................. 56
Appearance and Attitude ........................................ 59
Initiation Rituals ..................................................... 66
Fo'c'sle and Mess: Folklore of the Living Situation ........... 69
Foodlore .............................................................................. 72
Working Aloft ..................................................................... 76
Nicknames .......................................................................... 78
Idling on Deck .................................................................... 80
Maritime Communities ....................................................... 81
Summary ............................................................................. 85
IV THE 2002 MARITIME MEMORIALS SURVEY ........................ 87
Background Research ......................................................... 87
Survey Methodology ........................................................... 90
Survey Locations in England .............................................. 92
Portsmouth .............................................................. 92
Portland ................................................................... 96
Plymouth ................................................................. 99
Falmouth ................................................................. 102
Bristol ...................................................................... 104
Liverpool ................................................................. 105
Hull ......................................................................... 107
Survey Locations in the United States ................................ 108
Boston, Massachusetts ............................................ 108
Salem, Massachusetts ............................................. 112
Marblehead, Massachusetts .................................... 113
Gloucester, Massachusetts ...................................... 114
New Bedford, Massachusetts .................................. 115
Portland, Maine ....................................................... 116
Portsmouth, New Hampshire .................................. 118
New London, Connecticut ...................................... 119
Stonington, Connecticut .......................................... 120
Newport, Rhode Island ........................................... 121
Description:century ago, but one area in need of more attention is the examination of cultural aspects Such values include attention to duty, courage, group loyalty, self- epitaphs lament the fact that empty graves cannot provide an adequate
