Table Of ContentSAFE DRINKING WATER
The Impact of Chemicals
On A Limited Resource
Drinking Water Research Foundation
113 N. Henry Street, Alexandria, VA 22314 (703) 683-5213
SAFE DRINKING WATER
The Impact of Chemicals
On A Limited Resource
Rip G. Rice, PhD
Editor for the Drinking Water Research Foundation
First published 1985 by Lewis Publishers
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
Reissued 2018 by CRC Press
© 1985 by DRINKING WATER RESEARCH FOUNDATION
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iv
PREFACE
A review of the nation’s news coverages serves as a ready reminder that
drinking water safety is more than a regional or local concern. In recent
times, the print media alone has drawn attention to barium, bacteria,
heavy metals, and increasingly organic contaminants, in public water
supplies located in Florida, Rhode Island, Texas, Oregon, Illinois, Min
nesota, North Carolina, Michigan and California, to name a few.
In an effort to address one of the major issues confronting the future of
the nation s drinking water supplies, chemical contamination, the Drink
ing Water Research Foundation and the American Chemical Society pre
sented the symposium, “Safe Drinking Water: the Impact of Chemicals
on a Limited Resource.” To add balance to the total presentation, two
papers were included that were not part of the symposium.
Many questions as to the public significance of hundreds of organic
chemicals known to be present in the national drinking water supply are
waiting to be answered. In some areas of the country, acid rain-induced
alterations of the natural leaching process represent an unexplored poten
tial source of toxic pollutants. Finding workable ways to clean up the
water supply will be an ongoing task.
Addressing these questions, as well as investigating how other countr
ies are responding to these problems, the alternate sources available,
such as bottled water, and point-of-use devices, the presentors in this
symposium have attempted to explain the problems, situation, and
alternatives.
As progress is made in one area, setbacks will occur in another. As we
eliminate problems through chemical technology, we often create others,
such as contamination of our waters.
While all the situations, problems, and alternatives are not discussed in
these proceedings, it is hoped that some attention will be brought to the
public, government, and private sectors so that future work will be done
to assure the nation of safe drinking water resources.
William F. Deal, CAE
Executive Vice President
Drinking Water Research Foundation
v
EDITORIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Dr. Rip G. Rice received his PhD degree in Organic Chemistry from the
University of Maryland, and has more than 36 years of varied experience
in the federal government, aerospace, the chemical industry, and as a
private consultant in government liaison, environmental engineering,
and water and wastewater treatment.
In 1973, Dr. Rice co-founded the International Ozone Association, is a
member of its Board of Directors, and has served as its President during
1982 and 1983. During the period 1977-1980, he was a member of a
consulting team of specialists funded by the U.S. Environmental Protec
tion Agency to survey and analyze European and Canadian water treat
ment practices involving the uses of ozone, chlorine dioxide, granular
activated carbon, and biological treatment processes. Recently, Dr. Rice
conducted an extensive literature review of the oxidation products formed
when drinking water is treated with various oxidizing agents, for EPA’s
Office of Drinking Water.
Dr. Rice is coeditor of the series of books entitled, ‘Handbook of
Ozone Technology and Applications,” and coauthor of the book, “Biolo
gical Activated Carbon,” both published by Ann Arbor Science Publish
ers, Inc. In addition, Dr. Rice has edited 10 monographs and proceedings
for the International Ozone Association.
A member of the AWWA, WPCF, Sigma Xi, IOA, AiChE, the In
ternational Bottled Water Association, and the Technology Transfer Soci
ety, Dr. Rice recently has been appointed to the Joint U.S./USSR Work
Group on the Prevention of Water Pollution from Industrial and Municip
al Sources, directed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The editor is indebted to Miss Denice K. Cassady, whose outstanding
editorial and manuscript preparation services have made this opus possi
ble. Her constantly cheerful demeanor in the face of much drudgery was
an inspiration, and was very much appreciated.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part I—NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
1. Chemicals and Safe Drinking Water: National and
International Perspectives .........................................................1
Robert A. Neal, Ph .D.
2. Drinking Water: A Global Victual ............................................9
J. R. Hickman, B. Pharm, M.S.
Part II—SOURCES & DISTRIBUTION OF SAFE DRINKING
WATER
3. Public Drinking Water and Chemicals ..................................21
James F. Manwaring, P.E.
4. Bottled Water: An Alternative Source of Safe
Drinking Water .........................................................................33
Jerry T. Hutton, Ph.D.
5. Overview of Point-Of-Use Water Treatment
Technology .................................................................................43
P. Regunathan, Ph.D.
Part III—CHEMICALS IN DRINKING WATER
6. An Effective Alternative to Official Regulation of
Indirect Additives to Drinking Water....................................63
Nina I. McClelland, Ph.D.
7. The Water Treatment Chemicals Codex ..............................83
Robert A. Rehwoldt, Ph .D.
8. Disinfectant Chemistry In Drinking Water—
Overview of Impacts on Drinking Water Quality ..............87
A. A. Stevens, L. Moore, R. C. Dressman,
and D. R. Seeger
9. By-Products of Chlorination: Specific Compounds And
Their Relationship to Total Organic Halogen ....................109
Daniel L. Norwood, G. P. Thompson, J. J. St. Aubin,
D. S. Millington, R. F. Christman, and J. D. Johnson
vii
10. Ozone for Drinking Water Treatment—Evolution and
Present Status ........................................................................ 123
Rip G. Rice, Ph.D.
11. The Occurrence of Contamination In Drinking Water
From Groundwater Sources ................................................. 161
Hugh F. Hanson, P.E.
Part IV—MONITORING AND ANALYSIS
12. Improved Monitoring Techniques to Assess Groundwater
Quality Near Sources of Contamination ............................. 167
Glenn E. Schweitzer
13. NBS Environmental Standard Reference Materials for
Use In Validating Water Analysis ....................................... 177
R. Alvarez
Part V--REGULATORY ASPECTS
14. Regulation of Contaminants In Drinking Water ............... 183
Joseph A. Cotruvo, Ph.D.
15. Federal Protection of Groundwater..................................... 197
Timothy L. Harker, Esquire
16. The World Health Organization and Guidelines and
European Economic Community Directives ..................... 201
J. R. Hickman, B. Pharm, M.S.
17. Regulatory Flexibility and Consumer Options Under
the Safe Drinking Water Act ............................................. 209
Timothy L. Harker, Esquire
18. Structure and Regulation of the European Bottled
Water Industry ..................................................................... 223
Rip G. Rice, Ph.D., and G. Wade Miller
19. Congressional Initiatives ..................................................... 257
Honorable Robert T. Stafford
20. Conference Summation ....................................................... 263
Timothy L. Harker, Esquire
viii
CHAPTER 1
CHEMICALS AND SAFE DRINKING WATER:
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Robert A. Neal, Ph.D.
Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
Until quite recently, "pure" drinking water was judged
by the absence of mud, taste, odor, color, fecal coliforms,
total dissolved solids and a few other factors. However,
the realization that drinking water is contaminated by a
myriad of inorganic and, particularly, organic chemicals
has changed the way we judge its purity. This change in
the way we view our drinking water has been a natural
outgrowth of the drastic change in the nature of the
diseases that account for mortality and morbidity in our
society. Only a few decades ago, infectious diseases and
diseases caused by parasites were the major causes of
morbidity and mortality. Now cardiovascular diseases and
cancer are the prevailing threats to human health. The
determination of the role of life-style and chemical
contaminants in our environment, including drinking water,
in the etiology of these diseases is now a major activity
of governments, scientists and the medical profession. The
purpose of this paper is to examine, in a general sense,
the issue of chemical contamination of drinking water
sources and, to the degree possible, the implications of
that contamination to human health.
Certain human activities provide important sources of
chemical contamination of drinking water. Among these are
waste disposal from manufacturing and mining, the use of
pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture, the disposal of
domestic wastes including sewage, wastes from animal
feedlots and highway deicing materials.
The decay products of vegetation are an important
source of chemical contamination of drinking water largely
unrelated to human activities. Various chemicals used for
treatment and disinfection of water react with these decay
products of vegetation to produce some compounds of
potential concern for human health. An example is the
production of chloroform and other trihalomethanes as a
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