REUSE OF HUMAN WASTES IN AQUACULTURE

360 Pages·2000·24.25 MB·English

by  World Bank Group

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REUSE OF HUMAN WASTES
IN AQUACULTURE
A Technical Rcview
Peter Edwards
U
UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program
The World Bank, Washington,D .C., U.S.A.
REUSE OF HUMAN WASTES
IN AQUACULTURE
A Technical Review
I . I.
Copyright April 1992
'
The InternationalB ank for Reconstruction
and Development/TheW orld Bank
1818 H Street, NW
Washington,D C 20433 USA
All rights reserved
hManufactureidn the United States of America
Peter Edwards is Professor of Aquaculturea t the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, to
which position he was secoiidedb y the Overseas DevelopmentA dministration,L ondon.
The cover photo ihowsw orkers harvestingf ish in ap experimentalp ond in Rahara, West Bengal,
India. All photos are by the author, except the frollowing:
p. 46, Figure 2.18, Wolfgang Kasser
p. 95, Figure 4.6, drawn from an aerial photo by Janos Olah
p. 96, Figure 4.7, Elek Woynarovich
The UNDP-WorldB ankW atera nd SanitationP rogramw as organizeda s a joint endeavoro f the UnitedN ations
DevelopmentP rogrammea nd the World Banka nd has been one of the primary actors in worldwidee fforts to meet
the challengeo f providing basic water supply and sanitations ervicest o those most in need in the developingw orld.
Fartners in this vnture are the developingc ountriest hemselvesa nd the multilaterala nd bilaterala gencies that fumd
the Program's activities.
The UNDP-WorldB ank Water and SanitationP rogram produces its own publicationsa nd also releasesw orks under
the auspiceso f the World Bank. The Program's publicationsa re divided into two series, a Water and Sanitation
Program Report series and a Water and Sanitation Discussion Paper series. The Program Report series
presents formal discussionso f the Program's operationsa nd research as well as examinationso f relevantp rojects
and trends within the water and sanitation sector. Program Reports are subject to rigorous external review by
independent authorities from appropriate fields. The Discussion Paper series is a less formal means of
communicatingt imely and topical observations, findings, and opinions concerning Program activities and sector
issues.
This documenth as been pre ared and publishedb y the,U NDP-WorldB ank Water and SanitationP rogram, Water
and Sanitation Division, Infrastrcture and Urban DevelopmentD epartment, the World Bank. Copies may be
obtained from the Water and SanitationD ivision. Material may be quoted with proper attribution. The findings,
interpretationsa,n dc onclusionesx pressedin thisp apera re entirelyt hoseo f the authora nds houldn ot be attributed
in any manjer to the UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, the United Nations Development
Programme, the World Bank, or any affiliated organizations. Any maps that accompanyt he text have been
prepared solely for the convenienceo f the readers. The boundaries, denominations,a nd classificationso f maps
do not imply, on the part of the UNDP-World Bank Water and Ssnitation Program, the United Nations
DevelopmentP rogrmme, the World Bank Group, or any affiliated organization, any judgement on the legal or
other status of any territory, or endorsemento r acceptanceo f any boundary.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ................................. xv
Executive Summary ................................ xvii
1. Introduction. .................................. 1
2. Past and Current Excreta ReuiseA quacultureS ystems .... ...... 7
2.1 Introduction ............................... 7
2.2 Unintentionalr euse .................. 7
2.3 Overhung latrines ................. 8
2.3.1 China .......... . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . 8
2.3.2 Hong Kong ........ . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.3 Malaysia and Singapore. ................ . . 9
2.3.4 Thailaind. .......................... . 9
2.3.5 Vietnam.. ........ 9
2.3.6 Indonesia ......... . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 10
2.4 Cartage .................. . 14
2.4.1 China ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.2 Taiwan. ........................... . 15
2.4.3 Hong Kong ........ . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.4 Malaysiaa nd Singapore ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4.5 Japan .............................. 19
2.5 Fecally polluted surface water .................... 20
2.5.1 Indonesia ........ ................... 20
2.5.2 Sri Lanka ........................... 25
2.5.3 Taiwan. ............................ 26
2.6 Sewage. ................................. 27
2.6.1 India ........................ 27
2.6.2 China ............................. 35
2.6.3 Indonesia ........................... 40
2.6.4 Israel .............................. 42
2.6.5 Europe. ............................ 44
2.6.6 Africa ............................. 48
2.7 Aquatic macrophytes .......................... 49
2.7.1 Vegetables. ........... 49
2.7.2 Duckweeds .......................... 51
2.8 Summary ....... ....... .. ................ 53
3. Aquaculturei n Relation to SanitationT echnologyO ptions ....... 55
3.1 Introduction. .............................. 55
3.2 Trench and overhung latrine ..................... 56
3.3 Compostingl atrines .......................... 57
3.4 Bucket latrine .............................. 58
3.5 Pit latrine ........ 59
3.6 Pour-flush toilet ............................ 60
3.7 Vault ................................... 61
3.8 Aqua privy and septic tank ...................... 62
3.9 Conventionals ewerage ........................ 64
3.10 Sanitation sequences . . . ....... . . ... . . ... .... .. 66
4. ExperimentalE xcreta Reuse ........ . . . ......... . . . . . 67
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Sewage stabilizationp onds: Africa ...... . .... . ... .... .. 67
4.2.1 Kenya.. 67
4.2.2 South Africa II .. 67
4.3 Sewage stabilizationp onds: The Americas ..... . . . . . . . 73
4.3.1 DominicanR epublic ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3.2 Peru ......... . . . . ............ . . . . . 73
4.3.3 United States ........ . . . . ......... . . . . . 76
4.3.3.1 Quail Creek ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3.3.2 Benton ....... . . . 81
1.3.3.3 Simplifiedf ood chains: 'X'exas
and California ...... . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4 Sewage stabilizationp onds: Asia .................. 87
4.4.1 Hong Kong ........................ .. 87
4.4.2 India ..... 89
4.4.2.1 Madras.8 9
4.4.2.2 Nagpur ..................... 90
4.4.2.3 Raipur .90
4.4.2.4 West Bengal .91
4.4.3 Israel .. 92
4.4.4 China ...... ....... .. .............. 92
4.5 Sewage stabilizationp onds: Aust'-a;asia .............. 92
4.5.1 New Zealand ....................... .. 92
4.6 Sewage stabilizationp onds: Europe .93
4.6.1 France ........................... 93
4.6.2 Hungary ...... ....... .. ............. 94
4.6.3 Poland ...... ....... .. .............. 98
4.6.4 Russia ...... ....... .. .............. 99
4.6.5 United Kingdom .......... .. ........... 99
4.7 Sewage sludge ......................... .... 100
4.8 High-rate sewage stabilizationp onds ................ 102
4.9 Mass culture of zooplankton ..................... 105
4.10 Septage .... 107
4.11 Biogas ....... ................ .... 1111.......
4.12 Compost ............................. .... 112
4.13 Macrophytes .......................... .... 113
4.14 Summary ............................ .... 116
5. Design Considerationsf or Excreta Reuse Systems ............ 119
5.1 Introduction ............................... 119
5.2 Sanitary engineeringa nd aquaculture ...... .. ........ 120
5.3 Sewage ................... 121
5.3.1 Sewage stabilizationp onds ................. 121
5.3.2 Fish culture with sewage .................. 125
5.3.3 Sewage purification ..................... 129
5.3.4 Constraintst o fish culture in existing systems ...... 130
VI
5.3.5 Role of fish in sewage treatment ............. 131
5.3.6 Designs for optimal treatmento r reuse .... ...... 135
5.3.7 Sewage-fedf ish culture in cages ...... . . . . . . . . 139
5.4 Night-soil-fedp onds ................ . ........ 139
5.5 Dynamicso f waste-fedp onds ...... . ......... . . . . 142
5.5.1 Biota . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ........ . . 142
5.5.2 Fishspecies ......................... . 145
5.5.3 Environmentalf actors ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.5.4 Fish yields and population management ..... . . . . 154
5.5.5 Toxic substances ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.6 Design of excreta reuse systems ..... . ........... . . 168
5.6.1 Organic loading ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.6.2 Retentiont ime ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.6.3 Sludge accumulation. ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.6.4 Physical characteristicso f fishpond .. . ......... 175
5.6.5 Climatic considerations. ................. . 176
6. Excreta Reuse in Seawater ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2 Fertilizationo f the sea with inorganicf .t;iizers . ....... . 181
6.3 Coastal discharge of sewage ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.4 Commerciale xcreta reuse ....... . . .......... . . . . 183
6.5 Experimentale xcreta-reusem ariculture systems . . ....... . 184
6.5.1 Woods Hole OceanographicI nstitution, Harbor
Branch FoundationS tudies ...... . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.5.1.1 Laboratorye xperimentsa t Woods Hole . . 185
6.5.1.2 Small-scaleo utdoor studies at W' ods Hole 185
6.5.1.3 EnvironmentalS ystemsL aboratory
at Woods Hole ....... . . . . . . . . 188
6.5.1.4 Harbor Branch FoundationS tudies .... . 194
6.5.1.5 Summary. ...... . .. . . ... ... .. 198
6.5.2 Other phytoplankton-shellfish-fish-seawereedu se systems 198
6.5.3 Humboldt Bay ............. . 198
6.5.4 North Carolina ........ .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 201
6.5.5 Texas ........... .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . . 201
6.5.6 Natal, South Africa ............... . ..... 202
6.6 Prospects for excreta reuse in mariculture .. . ........ . . 203
7. Public Health ........... . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . . 209
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.2 Pathogens in excreta ........ . . . . . . .. ......... . 210
7.2.1 Viruses ......... . . ............ . . . . . 210
7.2.2 Bacteria ......... . . ............ . . . . . 210
7.2.3 Protozoa. .......................... . 213
7.2.4 Helminths ......... . . . . . . .. ......... . 213
7.2.4.1 Gnathostoma.. . . . ..... ... .... . 213
7.2.4.2 Clonorchisa nd Opisthorchis ..... . . . 214
7.2.4.3 Diphyllobothriuml atum ...... . . . . . 218
7.2.4.4 Fasciolopsisb uski .............. . 218
7.2.4.5 Fasciolah epatica ........ . . . . . . . 220
vii
II II I 1 1
7.2.4.6 Heterophyes, Metagonimus, and
Gastrodiscoides ...... .. ....... 220
7.2.4.7 Paragoninuss. ................. 221
7.2.4.8 Schistosoma .......... ........ 222
7.3 Excreta-relatedi nfectionsa nd aquaculture ......... .... 225
7.4 Public health hazards of fish farming ...... . . ....... . 227
7.4.1 Passive transfer of excreted pathogens ... ...... . 227
7.4.2 Helminthsu sing fish as intermediateh osts ..... . . . 229
7.4.3 Helminthsw ith aquatic intermediateh osts other than fish 230
7.4.4 Ponds as breeding sites for mosquitoes ... ...... . 233
7.5 Enteric pathogen indicatoro rganisms ...... . .. . 235
7.6 Excreta treatrnent ......... . .. . . . .. . ......... . 237
7.7 Fish and excreted bacteria and viruses ...... . ....... . 241
7.7.1 Quail Creek ........ . . . .. . .. . 242
7.7.2 Benton . . . ..................... 242
7.7.3 Haifa . . .......... . 243
7.7.4 Asian Institute of Technology .... . . . .... . . 245
7.7.5 Lima .......... . .. . .. . ............ . 248
7.7.6 Salmwneiia ........ . . . .. . . .......... . 250
7.7.7 Poliovirus ......... . . . . . . ........... . 252
7.8 Depurationo f fish ......... . . . . . .. . . ........ . 252
7.9 Macrophvte cultivation ........ . . . . . . . ........ . 254
7.10 High-rate sewage stabilizationp onds ...... . . ....... . 254
7.11 Biogas slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.12 Coastal aquaculture ......... . . . . . . . . . ........ . 256
7.12.1 Shellfish. . . ........ . ... . . . .. . . . . 257
7.12.2 Crustacea .......... ......... ...... 258
7.12.3 Fish ............ .. .. .. . .......... . 258
7.12.4 Free-living bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
7.13 Public health guidelinesi n the literature for excreta reuse
in aquaculture ........ .. . . . . . . . . 258
7.14 Excreta reuse strategiest o safeguardp ublic health .266
7.15 Summary .......... .. . . .. .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 268
8. SociologicalA spects ......... . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . 271
8.1 Introduction .......... . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 271
8.2 Social acceptanceo f excreta reuse .... . . 271
8.3 Increasings ocial acceptanceo f excreta reuse ..... . . . . . . 275
8.4 Implementationo f excreta reuse ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
9. Economic and Financial Aspects ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.1 Introduction ......... .. . . .. . . .. ........... . 281
9.2 Economica ssessmento f aquaculture ...... . ........ . 283
9.3 Case studies ......... .. . . .. . . .. ........... . 287
9.3.1 Commerciala quacultures ystems . . ..... . . . ... 287
9.3.1.1 Overhung latrines in Java ..... .. .. . 287
9.3.1.2 Night-soil-feda quaculture in Taiwan .... 287
9.3.1.3 Sewage-feda quaculturei n China . ..... 289
9.3.1.4 Sewage-fed aquaculture in India .. ... . 289
9.3.2 Experimentalf ish culture in sewage stabilizationp onds 292
uiii
9.3.2.1 Quail Creek ............. . .... 292
9.3.2.2 Benton ..................... 293
9.3.3 Hypotheticals tudies ...... 294
9.3.3.1 UnitedS tates ........... 294
9.3.3.2 World Bank . .297
9.3.3.3 AIT Chonburi .. ............. 299
9.3.3.4 AIT septage reuse .... 301
9.4 Economic and financialc osting of sanitation technology 302
9.5 Summary........ . 304
References fes..... 307
Figures
1.1 Excreta-reuse strategies in aquaculture 4.....4
1.2 Night soil collected by xvacuum trucks in Shanghaii s discharged
into riverside storage anks .. 5
1.3 Night soil in Shanghaii s pumped from riverside storage tanks
intob arges for transport to rural areas for reuse . . 6
2.1 Overhung latrine in GuangdongP rovince, China . .10
2.2 Overhung latrines in Thailand ....... . . . . . . ...... . 11
2.3 Overhung latrine in West Java, Indonesia ....... . . ..1. 2
2.4 Ferroconcreteb arge used to transport night soil to fish farms in
Wuxi, China .15
2.5 In Malaysia, night soil is loaded into a pond using a wooden
chute .. 19
2.6 Culture of fingerlingsi n ponds fed with fecally polluted surface
water, Cianjur, West Java 21
2.7 Culture of red tilapia in ponds hed with fecally polluted streams
in Bogor, West Java .22
2.8 Culture of common carp in cages in fecally polluted streams in
Cianjur, West Java. 24
2.9 A demonstrationo f the large-sizedc ommonc arp cultured in cages
in Cianjur ... . ............................. 24
2.10 HarvestingM ozambiquet ilapia (Oreockomis mossambicus)b y gill
net in Beira Lake, a fecally polluted lake in Colombo, Sri Lanka 25
2.11 The Calcutta sewage fisheries .29
2.12 The Calcutta sewage fisheries .29
2.13 Primary fertilizationo f a pond with raw sewage in winter,
Wuhan, China .36
2.14 Culture of fingerlingsi n Hankou sewage fishery, Wuhan, China 40
.
2.15 Fish harvest in eutrophic Lake Dong Hu (East Lake),
Wuhan, China. 41
2.16 Sewage-fedp onds used to raise fry and fingerlingsi n Bojongloa,
Bandung, West Java .41
2.17 Layout of the Munich sewage-fedp onds. 45
2.18 Munich sewage-fed ponds.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.19 Cultiv;tion and harvest of water spinach iu a fecally polluted
borrow pit in Thailand ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.20 Cultivationo f water mimosa (Xeptuna oleracea) in fecally pollute.d
borrow pit in Thailand ......... . . 50
2.21 Cultivationo f duckweeds (Lena, Wofflia) in shallow ponds using
fecally polluted surface water in Taiwan . 52
2.22 Harvestingd uckweed (Lemna, Woiffla)i n Taiwan . 52
3.1 Generic classificationo fTs anitations ystems. 56
3.2 The relationshipb etween low-cost sanitationt echnologyo ptions
and agriculture .................... 57
3.3 The relationship between coitv-nrtionasle wage and aquaculture . . 58
3.4 Compostingl atrine of the multrum type as used in the
BotswanaL ow-Cost SanitationP roject .59
3.5 A double septic bin latrine as used in the countrysideo f northern
Vietnam .60
3.6 Bucket latrine with handcart for transport of buckets 61
3.7 The basic componentso f a pit latrine .62
3.8 Hand-flushed,w ater-sealedl atrine with offset pit designedb y
EERI, Nagpur, India .63
3.9 Incrementali mprovementsm ade to latrines with vaults and to the
cartage systems serving them .64
3.10 Comparisono f the principle of the aquaprivy and the principle of
the septic tank .65
4.1 Pond arrangementa t the San Juan de Miraflores sewage stabiliza-
tion ponds in Lima, Peru, during the aquaculture studies 74
4.2 Seining a polishingp ond stocked with fish at the San Juan de
Miraflores sewage-reusep roject in Lima, Peru .75
4.3 Schematicr epresentationo f Quail Creek lagoon system 79
4.4 The Benton State Hospital sewage lagoons. 83
4.5 A five-step biological treatment system ..... . .......... . 85
4.6 Layout of experimentals ewage-fedp onds in Fonyod, Hungary . . . 95
4.7 Sprinklers in a large, experimental,s ewage-fedf ish pond at
Fonyod, Hungary. ......... . 96
4.8 Results of the five-year research project on domestic sewage
oxidationt echnology. 97
4.9 Schemef or wastewatert reatmenta nd resource recovery thr,ugh
algae productioni n a high-rate pond ...... . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.10 Schemao f the proposed urban septage-reuses ystem ..... . . . . 108
5.1 . yrmbiotirce lationshipb etween heterotrophicb acteria and
phytoplanktoni n facultativea nd maturationp onds ..... . . . . 123
5.2 Chlorophyll-ac oncentrationsa t different organic surface loadings
in facultativep cnds receiving raw domestic wastewater in
northwestB razil ......... . 124
5.3 Nitrogen transformationa nd losses in a facultative waste
stabilization pond .125
5.4 Various systems of sewage reuse in aquaculture. 126
5.5 Relationshipsb etween fish and plank-.oni n Rye Mead lagoons . . . 132
5.6 Change in eutrophic lake food web after addition of fish 134
5.7 Food chains in an excreta-feda quacultu-es ystem. 143
x