Table Of Content“An eagerly awaited investigation of major debates and challenges
concerning the purposes of mass higher education in the contemporary
world by one of the leading scholars in the field. In elegant prose
he explores complex social, cultural, economic and political
interactions associated with the expansion of higher education in
the UK and internationally. This important book should be read by
anyone interested in finding ways in which higher education might
better realise the potential of individuals and wider society.”
Maria Slowey, Higher Education Research
Centre, Dublin City University
“Peter Scott draws on international comparison to call for a ‘radical
escape-forward’ to address longstanding, widely regarded traditions in
higher education, such as access conditions and modes of governance.”
Ulrich Teichler, International Centre for
Higher Education Research Kassel
“Offers important historical reflections on key issues faced by mass
higher education today and proposes an alternative path towards an
inclusive and democratic model of universal higher education.”
Vincent Carpentier, UCL Institute of Education
“Peter Scott provides the essential historical narrative for our
times. An engine of social, cultural and economic progress –
higher education has left too many people behind. Helpfully,
Peter provides us with a road-map. A must read.”
Ellen Hazelkorn, Technological University Dublin
RETREAT OR RESOLUTION?
Tackling the Crisis
of Mass Higher Education
Peter Scott
First published in Great Britain in 2021 by
Policy Press, an imprint of
Bristol University Press
University of Bristol
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© Bristol University Press 2021
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
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ISBN 978-1-4473-6328-6 hardcover
ISBN 978-1-4473-6329-3 paperback
ISBN 978-1-4473-6330-9 ePub
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The right of Peter Scott to be identifi ed as author of this work has been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved: no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
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The statements and opinions contained within this publication are solely those of the author
and not of the University of Bristol or Bristol University Press. The University of Bristol and
Bristol University Press disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting
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Cover design: Robin Hawes
Front cover image: Kingston University Town House © Ed Reeve
Bristol University Press and Policy Press use environmentally responsible
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Printed in Great Britain by CMP, Poole
Contents
Glossary vi
Preface xi
1 A ‘general crisis’? 1
2 ‘Post-war’ to post-millennium 19
3 The development of mass higher education 37
4 Themes and transformations 59
5 Higher education today 80
6 A further gaze 109
7 The UK in the 21st century 127
8 COVID-19 emergency and market experiment 150
9 What is to be done? 168
Coda 190
References 192
Index 201
v
Glossary
Like other sectors of public life in the UK, higher education is overrun by a
riot of acronyms and agencies. Although they are explained in the text, this
glossary is designed as a simple and easy-to-access guide. Cross-references
to terms that appear elsewhere in the glossary are in bold type.
Three factors in particular help to explain the rapid turnover of
acronyms. The first factor is that there has been a succession of different
UK departments with primary responsibility for higher education – DES
(Department of Education and Science), DFE (Department for Education
– twice), DFES (Department for Education and Skills), DIUS (Department
for Innovation, Universities and Skills), BIS (Department for Business,
Innovation and Skills) … The main reason for this instability of departmental
titles has been the question of whether to bundle education with training
and skills, or with research, or both.
The second factor is that departmental and agency titles, and
responsibilities, have changed as a result of the devolution of the primary
responsibility for the whole of higher education and some research to
separate bodies in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland after
1992 and, in particular, after the re-establishment of the Scottish Parliament
and establishment of the National Assembly of Wales following devolution
in 1999.
Finally, the changing architecture of UK higher education – partly the
result of the development of the binary division between universities and
polytechnics and its later abandonment in favour of a unified system, and
partly of Scottish and Welsh devolution – has produced a shifting array of
agencies: UGC (University Grants Committee); NAB (National Advisory
Body); UFC (Universities Funding Council); PCFC (Polytechnics and
Colleges Funding Council); HEFCE (Higher Education Funding Council
for England); SHEFC (Scottish Higher Education Funding Council), which
later dropped the ‘Higher Education’ when it merged with its further
education equivalent to form the SFC (Scottish Funding Council); OfS
(Office for Students); UKRI (UK Research and Innovation) …
ABRC Advisory Board for the Research Councils, designed to
coordinate the work of the research councils, succeeded
by RCUK
Advance HE A staff development and training organisation created by
the merger of the HEA and the LFHE
BIS (Department for) Business, Innovation and Skills [2009–16]
vi
Glossary
CATs Colleges of advanced technology [1956–65], later
technological universities
CDBU Council for the Defence of British Universities
CIs Central institutions funded by the SED, broadly
equivalent to polytechnics in England and Wales
CNAA Council for National Academic Awards, the agency that
awarded degrees in polytechnics and colleges [1971–90]
CUC Committee of University Chairs [of governing bodies]
CVCP Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals, replaced
by UUK
DES Department of Education and Science [1963–93]
DFE Department for Education [1993–99], [2016–]
DFES Department for Education and Skills [1999–2007]
DIUS Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills
[2007–09]
EHEA European Higher Education Area covering 49 countries,
still including the UK, and principally designed to
oversee the development of the Bologna Process
ERA European Research Area, an initiative of the European
Commission and the main vehicle for structuring
European research programmes such as Horizon Europe.
ESRC Economic and Social Research Council.
EUA European University Association, bringing together more
than 800 university rectors and rectors’ conferences, such
as UUK, in 48 countries, including the UK
Fachhochschulen German higher professional schools, often translated into
English as ‘universities of applied sciences’
Grandes écoles Highly selective professional schools in France, distinct
from universities and at the apex of the higher education
system
HEA Higher Education Academy [2003–18], replaced the ILT
and merged with the LFHE into Advance HE
HEC Higher education corporation, the legal status of most
‘post-1992 universities’, as opposed to ‘pre-1992
universities’, most of which have Royal Charters
HEFCE Higher Education Funding Council for England [1992–
2017], replaced (in part) the UGC and was replaced by
the OfS
vii
Retreat or Resolution?
HEFCW Higher Education Funding Council for Wales [1992–],
replaced (in part) the UGC
HEPI Higher Education Policy Institute, an independent think-
tank
HEQC Higher Education Quality Council [1992–97], replaced
the Academic Audit Unit of the CVCP and the CNAA
HESA Higher Education Statistics Agency, a recognised national
statistics body
HNCs/HNDs Higher National Certificates (part-time) and Diplomas
(full-time), two-year vocationally oriented higher
education qualifications
ILEA Inner London Education Authority, replaced the London
County Council in 1961, responsible for schools, further
and higher education, and abolished in 1987
ILT Institute of Learning and Teaching [2000–03], initially a
member-controlled body to promote higher standards of
teaching, replaced by the HEA
LFHE Leadership Foundation for Higher Education, established
in 1998 and merged into Advance HE
MOOCs Massive Open Online Courses, available to all to access
online but not offering any kind of formal accreditation
NAB National Advisory Body (initially ‘for local authority
higher education’, and later ‘for public sector higher
education’) [1982–88]
NSS National Student Survey, an annual survey of students’
views about the quality of their teaching, established in
2005, currently under review
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, based in Paris, with 37 members,
including the UK, most of which are developed countries
OfS Office for Students [2018–], the regulator of English
universities and other providers of higher education,
which replaced the HEFCE
ONS Office for National Statistics
PCFC Polytechnics and Colleges Funding Council [1987–92],
replaced the NAB and was replaced by the HEFCE
viii
Glossary
Polytechnics Established between 1969 and 1971 by merging colleges
of technology, business and art (and later education) in
England and Wales, and designated as universities in 1992
‘Post-1992’ Universities established since 1992, comprising the
universities former polytechnics and some smaller colleges of higher
education
‘Pre-1992’ Universities that had already been established by 1992,
universities sometimes described (misleadingly) as the ‘traditional
universities’
QAA Quality Assurance Agency [1997–], replaced the HEQC,
and incorporated the quality assurance divisions of the
Higher Education Funding Councils
QR funding Quality-related research funding: baseline research
funding provided by Research England and, in Scotland
and Wales, by their respective funding councils, based on
the results of the REF
RAE Research Assessment Exercise, first developed in the
1980s and replaced by the REF in 2008
RCUK Research Councils UK [2002–18], succeeded the
ABRC, and was replaced (in part) by UKRI
REF Research Excellence Framework, a four- or five-yearly
assessment of the quality and impact of research in UK
universities which is used as the basis for distributing
QR funding
Research A subsidiary of UKRI, which acts as a special-purpose
England vehicle to distribute QR funding to English universities
SED Scottish Education Department, established in the
19th century and now subsumed within the Scottish
Executive [now Government], its direct funding
responsibilities transferred to the new Higher and Further
Education Funding Councils in Scotland in 1992
SFC Scottish Funding Council [2005–], responsible for
distributing funding (for both teaching and research)
to Scottish higher education institutions and further
education colleges
SHEFC Scottish Higher Education Funding Council [1992–2005],
replaced the UFC and the funding responsibilities of the
SED
STEM Science, technology, engineering and medicine (or
mathematics, in its original definition)
ix
