Table Of ContentRETHINKING FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT
IN EMERGENCY SETTINGS
Decision Support Tools and Smart Technology Applications
for Emergency Sanitation
Fiona ZAKARIA
RETHINKING FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT
IN EMERGENCY SETTINGS
Decision Support Tools and Smart Technology Applications
for Emergency Sanitation
DISSERTATION
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of
the Board for Doctorates of Delft University of Technology
and
of the Academic Board of the IHE Delft
Institute for Water Education
for
the Degree of DOCTOR
to be defended in public on
Friday, 28 June, at 12.30 hours
in Delft, the Netherlands
by
Fiona ZAKARIA
Master of Science in Water Science, Policy and Management, University of Oxford, UK
Master of Science in Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, University Putra Malaysia
born in Bandung, Indonesia
This dissertation has been approved by the
promotor: Prof. dr. D. Brdjanovic
Composition of the doctoral committee:
Rector Magnificus TU Delft Chairman
Rector IHE Delft Vice-Chairman
Prof.dr. D. Brdjanovic IHE Delft/ TU Delft, promotor
Independent members:
Prof.dr.ir. J.B. van Lier TU Delft
Prof.dr.ir. G.J.F.R. Alaerts IHE Delft / TU Delft
Prof.dr. M. von Sperling Federal University of Mina Gerais, Brasil
Prof.dr.ir. G. Zeeman Wageningen University & Research
Prof.dr.ir. M.K. de Kreuk TU Delft, reserve member
This research was conducted under the auspices of the SENSE Research School for
Socio-Economic and Natural Sciences of the Environment
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019, Fiona Zakaria
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the
information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers, the author nor IHE Delft for
any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or
the information contained herein.
A pdf version of this work will bemade available as Open Access via
http://repository.tudelft.nl/ihe This version is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License,
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
Published by:
CRC Press/Balkema
Schipholweg 107C, 2316 XC, Leiden, the Netherlands
[email protected]
www.crcpress.com–www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN 978-0-367-36181-5
the water and sanitation crisis claims more lives through diseases than any war
claims through weapons (UNHDR’s Water Fact 2012)
Table of content
Thesis summary ................................................................................................................. ix
Samenvatting ..................................................................................................................... xi
1 General introduction ..................................................................................................1
2 eSOS™ - emergency Sanitation Operation System ................................................. 13
3 eSOS™ Smart Toilet development history .............................................................. 27
4 Evaluation of eSOS™ Smart Toilet ........................................................................... 55
5 Evaluation of water treatment and wastewater characterisation from eSOS
Smart Toilet ............................................................................................................... 83
6 Effectiveness of UV-C light irradiation on disinfection of an eSOS™ Smart Toilet
.................................................................................................................................... 95
7 User acceptance of the experimental eSOS™ Smart Toilet .................................. 121
8 Decision support system for the provision of emergency sanitation ................. 141
9 Development and validation of a financial flow simulator for the sanitation
value chain .............................................................................................................. 167
10 Reflections and outlook.......................................................................................... 185
About the Author ............................................................................................................ 199
List of Publications .......................................................................................................... 201
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................... 203
Thesis summary
The development of technology in the emergency sanitation sector has not been emphasised
sufficiently considering that the management of human excreta is a basic requirement for
every person. The lack of technology tailored to emergency situations complicates efforts to
cater for sanitation needs in challenging humanitarian crisis. Sanitation response together with
the provision of clean water and hygiene promotion are considered life-saving efforts in
emergencies. Nevertheless, in an emergency, there is regularly lack of means and limited
planning time available to provide an effective and safe sanitation response.
Reviewing the existing practices, the emergency toilet options consist of very basic provisions,
primarily trench and pit latrines. Whenever it is not possible to dig a pit or trench, the option
left is using container based sanitation. This type of sanitation in particular requires a
collection or emptying plan, and a subsequent treatment and safe disposal plan, which is
usually overlooked in the realm of an emergency where there is limited time to plan for any
requirements after toilet provisions.
With the above-mentioned concerns in mind, this study focused on the development of a
smart emergency toilet termed the eSOS (emergency sanitation operation system) smart toilet
to address the limitation in technical options. This toilet is based on the eSOS concept that
takes into account the entire sanitation chain, which is the required processing of human
excreta from toilet until safe disposal (downstream process). The initial design was the basis
to the experimental toilet prototype, which was then tested and evaluated under real use
conditions in an emergency camp in Tacloban City, in the Philippines.
This field research in the Philippines evaluated different design related aspects of the toilet,
such as the operation, user acceptance, and specific smart features. The aim was also to obtain
new knowledge using the toilet’s sophisticated monitoring system, such as information on the
toilet use and the characterisation of generated faecal sludge and urine streams under real
emergency conditions.
This PhD study also addresses the limited time for planning in emergencies by developing a
decision support system (DSS) to help quick selection of optimal sanitation options. The aim
was to enable users of the DSS to plan their emergency sanitation response within the shortest
time possible. The DSS tool gathered all the technical options suitable for use in emergencies
and organised them into corresponding function groups in the sanitation chain. The user is
asked for input to relate the suitability of the technical options with the user’s scenario. The
tool subsequently guides the user to plan each chain element to make up planning for the
complete chain. The user can compare workable sanitation alternatives presented in a few
chains. The selection process is an iterative process, by giving an overview of the impact of the
different sanitation technical options in their planned sanitation process. The tool outcome is
several evaluated sanitation chains. The evaluation uses a rating system, which is also
