Table Of ContentResearch Methods for
Environmental Psychology
“The chapters in this volume offer a broad-gauged, in-depth overview of diverse
research methods for studying and improving people’s relationships with their
everyday surroundings. This book will be an invaluable resource for scholars and
practitioners working in the interdisciplinary fields of environmental psychology,
urban planning, and environmental design research.”
Daniel Stokols, Ph.D., Chancellor’s Professor Emeritus,
School of Social Ecology, University of California,
Irvine, USA
“A highly accessible and long overdue book which sets the methods in context by
starting with the problems environmental psychologists are trying to solve; it reflects
what we tell our students to do – start with the problem and then explore the most
appropriate methodology, not vice versa. An interesting choice of research methods
have been selected that go beyond the normal suspects.”
David Uzzell, Professor of Environmental Psychology,
University of Surrey, UK
“This is not only a volume on research methods, but an invaluable book showing
the incredible richness and potential of the still growing field of environmental
psychology.”
Mirilia Bonnes, Professor of Social and
Environmental Psychology, Sapienza
University of Rome, Italy
“As economic and global climate changes press human health and the human spirit,
insights about how to study the role of the physical environment in human behavior
are more critical than ever. This volume provides up-to-date overviews of mul-
tiple methodological approaches to studying human–environment relations. The
collective wisdom and experiences of the chapter authors reflect well on environmental
psychology. Professionals, scholars, and advanced students interested in people and
the environment will repeatedly rely on this volume.”
Gary W. Evans, Elizabeth Lee Vincent
Professor of Human Ecology,
Cornell University, USA
“In this much-needed book research methods are introduced in a fun way without
overly simplifying the topics, which should appeal to both students and teachers.
The uniquely broad coverage of different research methods in environmental
psychology will be very useful for academic courses.”
Tommy Gärling, Emeritus Professor of Psychology,
University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Research Methods for
Environmental Psychology
Edited by
Robert Gifford
This edition first published 2016
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Gifford, Robert, editor.
Title: Research methods for environmental psychology / edited by Robert Gifford.
Description: Hoboken : Wiley, 2015. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015031981 (print) | LCCN 2015039975 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781118795330 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118795385 (pbk.) |
ISBN 9781118795415 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118795453 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Environmental psychology–Research.
Classification: LCC BF353.R46 2015 (print) | LCC BF353 (ebook) | DDC 155.9072/1–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015031981
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover image: © fotoVoyager/iStockphoto
Set in 9.5/11.5pt Galliard by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
1 2016
Contents
Contributors vii
1 Introduction: Environmental Psychology and its Methods 1
Robert Gifford
2 Observational Methods: The First Step in Science 9
Reuven Sussman
3 Behavioral Mapping and Tracking 29
Cheuk Fan Ng
4 Research Designs for Environmental Issues 53
Wokje Abrahamse, P. Wesley Schultz, and Linda Steg
5 Agree to Disagree: A Practical Guide to Conducting Survey
Research in Environmental Psychology 71
Donald W. Hine, Christine Kormos, and
Anthony D. G. Marks
6 Who Cares? Measuring Environmental Attitudes 93
Amanda McIntyre and Taciano L. Milfont
7 Qualitative Approaches to Environment–Behavior Research:
Understanding Environmental and Place Experiences, Meanings,
and Actions 115
David Seamon and Harneet K. Gill
8 Revealing the Conceptual Systems of Places 137
David Canter
9 Behavioral Methods for Spatial Cognition Research 161
Daniel R. Montello
10 Microworlds: Using Computers to Understand
Choices about the Use of Natural Resources 183
Angel Chen and Paul A. Bell
11 Simulating Designed Environments 197
Arthur E. Stamps III
vi Contents
12 Planning the Built Environment: Programming 221
Jay Farbstein, Richard E. Wener, and Lindsay J. McCunn
13 Did that Plan Work? Post‐occupancy Evaluation 249
Richard E. Wener, Lindsay J. McCunn, and Jennifer Senick
14 Action Research: Enhancing Application 271
Valeria Cortés and Robert Sommer
15 Research Designs for Measuring the Effectiveness of Interventions 291
Wokje Abrahamse
16 Applying Behavioral Science for Environmental Sustainability 307
E. Scott Geller, Wokje Abrahamse, Branda Guan,
and Reuven Sussman
17 Improving Human Functioning: Ecotherapy and Environmental
Health Approaches 323
Thomas Doherty and Angel Chen
18 Research and Design for Special Populations 345
John Zeisel, Robert Gifford, Mark Martin, and Lindsay J. McCunn
19 Advanced Statistics for Environment‐Behavior Research:
Multi‐level Modeling and Structural Equation Modeling 369
Donald W. Hine, Victor Corral‐Verdugo,
Navjot Bhullar, and Martha Frias‐Armenta
20 Meta‐analysis: An Analysis of Analyses 389
Christine Kormos
Author Index 409
Subject Index 421
Contributors
Wokje Abrahamse Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Paul A. Bell Colorado State University, CO, United States
Navjot Bhullar University of New England, NSW, Australia
David Canter University of Huddersfield, United Kingdom
Angel Chen University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Victor Corral‐Verdugo Universidad de Sonora, Mexico
Valeria Cortés University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Thomas Doherty Lewis and Clark Graduate School, OR, United States
Jay Farbstein Jay Farbstein & Associates, Los Angeles, CA, United States
Martha Frias‐Armenta Universidad de Sonora, Mexico
E. Scott Geller Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, VA, United States
Robert Gifford University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Harneet K. Gill Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Branda Guan University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Donald W. Hine University of New England, NSW, Australia
Christine Kormos University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Anthony D. G. Marks University of New England, NSW, Australia
Mark Martin Optimal Environments, Inc., FL, United States
Lindsay J. McCunn University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Amanda McIntyre University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Taciano L. Milfont Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Daniel R. Montello University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
Cheuk Fan Ng Athabasca University, AB, Canada
viii Contributors
P. Wesley Schultz California State University, San Marcos, CA, United States
David Seamon Kansas State University, KS, United States
Jennifer Senick Rutgers University, NJ, United States
Arthur E. Stamps III Institute of Environmental Quality, San Francisco, CA,
United States
Linda Steg University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Robert Sommer University of California, Davis, CA, United States
Reuven Sussman University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Richard E. Wener New York University, NY, United States
John Zeisel Hearthstone Alzheimer Care, United States
1
Introduction
Environmental Psychology and its Methods
Robert Gifford
University of Victoria, BC, Canada
How did we get here? I don’t mean biologically; I mean to the point where we are
sharing a book about how to do research in environmental psychology. You will have
your story; here is mine. Like many others, I was initially drawn to psychology
because of its potential to help people with emotional and cognitive difficulties.
I entered graduate school as a student in clinical psychology, even though I had
worked as an undergraduate assistant for a professor (Robert Sommer) who was
curious about such things as how people tended to space themselves from others
and whether one’s choice of study areas influenced academic performance. These
studies were driven partly by pure curiosity about how humans operate in their daily
environments, and partly by the goal of informing environmental design from the
person outward rather than from the building inward. Put another way, these studies
sought to discover fundamental principles of human behavior, which could then be
translated into practice by talented designers, who would create people‐centered
optimal environments.
I slowly realized that I was more suited and more interested in these questions and
goals than I was in being a clinical psychologist. At about the same time, in the late
1960s, what we had been doing acquired a name, environmental psychology.1 In
some senses, having a name makes something real, or at least more real. Activity
becomes legitimized, recognized, and organized. After dropping out of graduate
school (I also dropped out of kindergarten, but that is another story) and contem-
plating my future in a cabin on a remote island that had no electricity or running
water, or even any furniture, I knew I had to be engaged in discovering the pr inciples
and aiding the practice as an environmental psychologist. I went back to graduate
school, and here I am, 45 years later.
Why this personal story? Frankly, it is an attempt to connect with you, the reader,
who also probably did not enter your post‐secondary education with a ringing
d eclaration that “I want to be an environmental psychologist!” Your story undoubtedly
Research Methods for Environmental Psychology, First Edition. Edited by Robert Gifford.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
2 Robert Gifford
differs from mine in its details, but I suspect that in broad terms it is the same. At
some point you discovered environmental psychology, you were intrigued, and
here you are.
So, where is it exactly that you are? You may well have entered this big house
through a variety of doors. Do you want to conduct fundamental research, that is to
learn how humans interact with their physical environments (without any particular
or immediate application to saving the planet or designing better buildings)? If so,
welcome to the big house; this book has chapters for you. Do you want to under-
stand how the physical environment impacts people in negative and positive ways?
We have space in the big house for you, too. I know … you want to learn how and
why people are damaging the only planet we have available to live on. Yes, of course,
this big house has space for you, as well. All this book’s editor expects is that you
respect and tolerate others in the house who have different goals.
Environmental psychology needs all of you, just as medicine needs fundamental
biochemistry, knowledge about pathogens and paths to health, those whose practice
focuses on the usual but important run of flu and fractures, and activist physicians
who are willing to put their lives on the line by going to the front lines of the latest
dangerous epidemic or war.
That is why the book has four protagonists, whom you will meet at the beginning
of each chapter. I hope you will see a bit or a lot of yourself in one of these charac-
ters. They are all just now entering graduate school. Maria, Ethan, Gabriel, and
Annabelle share a house and are friends who met through school or work. All four
happen to be dedicated to environmental psychology, but they vary in their interests
within the field and in their backgrounds.
Maria has a undergraduate degree in psychology, with a minor in neuroscience.
She believes that knowledge advances best when strong and clear scientific methods
are employed. She feels most comfortable in the laboratory, but she is willing to
leave the lab to work on problems as long as the issue can be worked on with
scientific methods. Privately, she is skeptical about the validity of field studies.
Ethan also has an undergraduate degree in psychology, but his minor was in soci-
ology. He prefers to study environmental issues in the community, through surveys,
interviews, and talking to community members. He believes that lab studies have
their place, but ecological validity trumps the value of the confined laboratory. He is
not so private about his belief that you can’t be sure of any finding that isn’t verified
in the community. He belongs to three activist organizations.
Gabriel’s undergraduate degree was in geography. He spent a year in architecture
school before realizing that he was more interested in the human dimensions of the
built environment. Currently, he has a co‐op position with the regional government;
he is taking a term off from graduate school, but will return next term. Every day he
hears from co‐workers about how academics are OK, but they take far too long to
conduct studies, and are unrealistic about policy, politics, and the application of
research to the real world. Although he is a scientist at heart, he largely agrees with
them. He is trying hard to bridge the science–policy gap.
Annabelle did her undergraduate degree in psychology, but she took as many courses
about people with problems as she could; if she were not primarily interested in envi-
ronmental psychology, she would be a clinical psychologist or social worker. Her minor
was in environmental studies and she gets out into nature almost every weekend.
