Table Of ContentEuclid Seeram
Robert Davidson
Andrew England
Mark F. McEntee Editors
Research
for Medical
Imaging and
Radiation Sciences
Research for Medical Imaging
and Radiation Sciences
Euclid Seeram • Robert Davidson
Andrew England • Mark F. McEntee
Editors
Research for Medical
Imaging and Radiation
Sciences
Editors
Euclid Seeram Robert Davidson
Medical Imaging, Faculty of Health Faculty of Health
University of Canberra University of Canberra
Burnaby, BC, Canada Canberra, ACT, Australia
Andrew England Mark F. McEntee
Brookfield Health Sciences Brookfield Health Sciences
University College Cork University College Cork
Cork, Ireland Cork, Ireland
ISBN 978-3-030-79955-7 ISBN 978-3-030-79956-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79956-4
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This book is dedicated with love and
affection to my brilliant and charming wife
Trish, the most caring person I know.
Euclid Seeram, PhD, FCAMRT
I dedicate this book to my wife Debbie, my
best friend and partner. Without her support
my research career would not exist
Professor Rob Davidson, PhD, MAppSc (MI),
BBus, FASMIRT
Thank you to my wife and two daughters for
their love and unconditional support.
Dr Andrew England, BSc(Hons), MSc, PhD
To my mum Maureen and father Pat
McEntee, thank you for your unquestioning
support.
Professor Mark F. McEntee, BSc (Hons)
Radiog., PhD, F(IIRRT), SF(HEA)
Preface
Research in medical imaging technologies (radiography, nuclear medicine, mag-
netic resonance imaging) and radiation sciences (radiation therapy) is an evolving
area of study in diagnostic radiography, magnetic resonance imaging, nuclear medi-
cine and radiation therapy. For example, radiography education and training evolved
from hospital-based “one on one” training and hospital-based schools, which
involved classroom-based instruction coupled with clinical practice, to college-
based and university-based educational programs. University-based programs offer
degrees ranging from undergraduate degrees (bachelor’s) to graduate degrees such
as masters’ degrees [Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Science (MSc)] and Doctor
of Philosophy (PhD) degrees. The latter two degrees specifically require that stu-
dents engage in research as part of the fulfilment of meeting the requirements for
graduation. This evolution of the education in medical imaging and radiation sci-
ences now requires that research be a part of curricula in medical imaging and radia-
tion sciences as is evident in professional radiography (radiological technology) and
therapy organizations, such as the American Society of Radiologic Technologists
(ASRT), the Canadian Association of Medical Radiation Technologists (CAMRT)
and the Society and College of Radiographers (SCoR).
The SCoR’s research vision, for example, is “to improve patient care and out-
comes by continuing to develop, grow and implement a high-quality evidence-base
that addresses key patient-focussed research priorities”. To accomplish this strategy,
the SCoR offers the following three aims: “Embed research at all levels of radiogra-
phy practice and education; raise the impact and profile of radiography through high
quality research focussed on improving patient care and/or service delivery; and
expand UK radiography research capacity through development of skilled and moti-
vated research-active members of the profession”. In a similar vein, the American
Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT) and the CAMRT have also embedded
research in the curricula for radiography and radiation therapy. Furthermore, the
CAMRT has also embedded research in the magnetic resonance, nuclear medicine
and radiation therapy. An interesting study by Vikestad et al. investigated the opin-
ion of radiographers on the need for radiography research and found that “the
majority of radiographers agreed that there was a need for radiography research and
vii
viii Preface
that radiographers/ radiation therapists should take a leading role in such work. The
results indicate that radiographers/radiation therapists would benefit from training
in informal and formal research skills. Finally, in an article entitled “Inclusion of
evidence and research in European radiography curricula”, England and McNulty
point out that “the inclusion of evidence and research topics within undergraduate
radiography curricula is paramount…..A set of core evidence and research objec-
tives are essential for the newly qualified practitioner”.
Professional medical imaging and radiation sciences organizations offer journals
in which scholarly research studies are published in an effort to provide their mem-
bers and other readership with an exposure to the nature of research in the profes-
sion. Examples of these journals include:
1. The Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences, journal of the CAMRT
2. Radiologic Technology, journal of the ASRT
3. Radiation Therapy, journal of the ASRT
4. Radiography: An International Journal of Diagnostic Imaging and Radiation
Therapy, journal of the SCoR and the European Federation of Radiographer
Societies
5. Journal of Medical Radiation Sciences, an international and multidisciplinary
peer-reviewed journal that accepts manuscripts related to medical imaging/diag-
nostic radiography, radiation therapy, nuclear medicine, medical ultrasound/
sonography, and the complementary disciplines of medical physics, radiology,
radiation oncology, nursing, psychology and sociology; Journal of the Australian
Society of Medical Imaging and Radiation Therapy; and New Zealand Institute
of Medical Radiation Technology
With the above ideas in mind, radiation protection is now an integral part of the
curriculum in radiologic technology
The overall goal of this book is:
1. To meet the educational requirements on research principles and concepts (for
entry to practice) of the following professional radiologic technology associa-
tions: the American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT), the Canadian
Association of Medical Radiation Technologists (CAMRT), the College of
Radiographers in the United Kingdom, and radiography societies and associa-
tions in Asia, Australia, Europe and Africa
2. To meet academic requirements in the teaching of research principles and meth-
odologies in medical radiation science in programs/courses taught at the bache-
lor’s degree level
The scope of this book covers topics ranging from the nature of scientific
research, quantitative and qualitive approaches essentials, research planning, and
literature review fundamentals to research methods, data collection, analysis, and
interpretation; communicating research findings; and examples of published
research in medical imaging journals.
With the above objectives in mind, this book can be used as an introduction to
research in medical imaging, for both students and professional technologists, and
Preface ix
as a supplement for applied fields such as biomedical engineering technology
programs.
The book is organized into 8 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 presents an overview of the nature and scope of research according to
the scientific method, including key characteristics of the scientific method, the
importance of research, evidence-based practice, the steps in research process cycle,
and, finally, the nature of ethics in research. Chapter 2 provides an essential outline
of the differences between quantitative and qualitative research approaches. Chapter
3 deals with the elements of planning your research and reviews major formulating
a research question, research planning, the nature of hypotheses, a detailed descrip-
tion of research ethics and elements of the research proposal. While Chap.4
addresses the steps in the literature searches, reviews and writing literature reviews,
Chapter 5 examines a detailed description of types of quantitative and qualitative
research methods and designs.
Chapter 6 presents the approaches to data collection, analysis and interpretation
through an explanation of various aspects of descriptive statistics, correlation and
the rudiments of inferential statistics. Furthermore, this chapter covers image qual-
ity and comparison, and specifically includes a description of physical measures,
psychophysical measures and observer performance tests. Chapter 7 outlines the
essential requirements for communicating research findings. In particular, the
method of communicating your research findings, knowing your audience, research
output types, journal selection and criteria for evaluating a journal, as well as ele-
ments of a conference presentation.
Finally, Chap. 8 reviews selected published examples of research in medical
imaging in various medical imaging journals.
Best wishes in your pursuit of the study of the essential principles of research
using the scientific method.
Burnaby, BC, Canada Euclid Seeram
Canberra, ACT, Australia Robert Davidson
Cork, Ireland Andrew England
Cork, Ireland Mark F. McEntee
Acknowledgements
The single most important and satisfying task in writing a book of this nature is to
acknowledge those individuals who have provided the motivation for preparing and
writing a textbook of research fundamentals for medical imaging and radiation pro-
fessionals, as well as those who perceive the value of its contribution to the medical
imaging sciences literature. It is indeed a pleasure to express sincere thanks to these
individuals. First, I would like to thank my professors in my graduate science stud-
ies (MSc) who have taught me the elements of scientific research, and statistics.
Furthermore, I am grateful to Dr. Rob Davidson, PhD, and two medical physicists,
Dr. Hans Swan, PhD, and Dr. Stewart Bushong, DSc, who evaluated my PhD
research proposal and approved the research processes applied to the conduct of the
investigation. In addition, my continued and improved understanding of scientific
research are centred around the works and expertise of several notable individuals
whose textbooks on research have provided me with the tools needed to do original
research and to be a part of the team of editors who wrote this book. In particular, I
acknowledge the published works of Jennifer R Gray, PhD, Susan K Grove, PhD,
and Susanne Sutherland, PhD, specifically their textbook Burns and Grove’s: The
Practice of Nursing Research: Appraisal, Synthesis, and Generation of Evidence.
Additionally, I have learned more about scientific research from another free and
open access textbook entitled Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and
Practices by Anol Bhattacherjee, PhD, of the University of South Florida, Tampa
Library Open Access Collections at Scholar Commons textbook. Throughout the
chapters that I have written, I have purposefully used several quotes so as not to
detract from the authors’ original meaning. I personally believe that these quotes
and illustrations have added significantly to the clarity of the explanations. Best
wishes; keep on learning and enjoy the pages that follow.
Euclid Seeram, PhD, Canada
xi
xii Acknowledgements
In the health professions, research often starts with a need to improve clinical prac-
tice or outcomes. Mine started in the 1980s when as a CT radiographer I was con-
cerned about the radiation dose to the foetus during CT pelvimetry examinations. I
was encouraged by my boss, Graham Tidswell, and mentored by radiologists at
Flinders Medical Centre in South Australia and especially by Emeritus Professor
Michael Sage, the professor of radiology at that time. My research career began
when becoming an academic at Charles Sturt University, New South Wales,
Australia, and starting my PhD. I was fortunate to have great supervisors being
Professor Bruce Hartley, PhD, a physicist; Dr. Hans Swan, PhD, a physicist;
Professor Steve Meikle, PhD, a physicist; and Professor Sarah Lewis, PhD, a radiog-
rapher (one of the very few Australian radiographers with a PhD at that time). While
getting a good start in research through good supervision and support is important,
to me a passion is needed to sustain the research journey. My PhD was undertaken
on a part-time basis over 7 years. My passion for that project and research that fol-
lowed has been maintained over many years. I am fortunate that I am and have
mentored and supervised many research students and colleagues. My focus to these
people is not just the technical aspects of undertaking research, I hope that I am also
instilling the passion that is needed to sustain the research journey. I know this book
will help with your understanding of the technical aspects research and I hope this
book will also instil some of that passion that is needed. The professions within
medical radiation sciences, as do all professions, need passionate people in research
to grow the profession’s body of knowledge. Enjoy the book, and importantly, enjoy
undertaking research.
Rob Davidson, PhD, Australia
I have been deeply passionate about research since my undergraduate days at
Liverpool University. Having the opportunity to undertake clinical research as a
radiography undergraduate fuelled my desire to pursue a career in research. Twenty-
two years later, I am now a senior lecturer in radiography, have completed master’s
and doctoral level qualifications, and have published and presented at leading con-
ferences and in key peer-reviewed journals. For me, research has given me to the
opportunity to contribute to enhancing patient care, and this is the essence of being
a radiographer. Numerous people have helped influence my research and career
trajectories, too many to list and thank personally. In contributing to this textbook, I
am reminded and would like to thank my current and past colleagues, lecturers,
students, friends and family, both from the UK and internationally. Research has
given me a career that I love dearly and hopefully this textbook will engage others
in the radiographic community to engage in research. Establishing a career in
research is not easy but is exceptionally rewarding. In writing this dedication. I am
reminded of the unwavering support of my wife and children, without whom this
would all be much more difficult. Good luck to those who will read this textbook,
and I look forward to seeing the fruits published and presented within our radio-
graphic community.
Andrew England, PhD, UK
