Renewable Energy Technologies and Water Infrastructure

261 Pages·2022·4.732 MB·English

by  S. Rao Chitikela, Venkata Gullapalli, William F. Ritter

Renewable Energy
Technologies and
Water Infrastructure
Advancing Renewable Energy Technologies Committee
Edited by
S. Rao Chitikela, Ph.D., P.E., P.Eng.
Venkata Gullapalli, Ph.D.
William F. Ritter, Ph.D., P.E., D.WRE
Renewable Energy
Technologies and Water
Infrastructure
Prepared by
Advancing Renewable Energy Technologies Committee
Edited by
S. Rao Chitikela, Ph.D., P.E., P.Eng.
Venkata Gullapalli, Ph.D.
William F. Ritter, Ph.D., P.E., D.WRE
Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Advancing Renewable Energy Technologies Committee, author. | Chitikela, S. Rao,
editor. | Gullapalli, Venkata, editor. | Ritter, William F., editor.
Title: Renewable energy technologies and water infrastructure
Description: First edition. | Reston : American Society of Civil Engineers, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “Renewable Energy Technologies
and the Water Infrastructure provides an in-depth look at policy, regulation, and the
development and application of renewable energies into existing water infrastructure”--
Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021022251 | ISBN 9780784415856 (paperback) | ISBN 9780784483664
(ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Waterworks--Technological innovations--United States. | Waterworks--
Energy conservation--United States. | Waterworks--Environmental aspects--United States. |
Water--Purification--Equipment and supplies--Technological innovations--United States. |
Renewable energy sources.
Classification: LCC TD485 .E58 2021 | DDC 628.10973--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021022251
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27 26 25 24 23 22 1 2 3 4 5
Contents
Preface ..........................................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................xiii
List of Authors and Reviewers ...........................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 U S Renewable Energy Policy—Analysis and
Recommendations ....................................................................1
Alexander Krokus (Deceased)
Introduction ........................................................................................................................1
National Energy Act of 1978 (H.R. 8444 1977-78) ........................................2
Energy Policy Act of 2005 ....................................................................................2
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ........................................3
Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 ...............................................3
Clean Power Plan of 2015 .....................................................................................3
Energy Efficiency Resources Standards ..........................................................4
Renewable Energy Projects ................................................................................5
Federal Investment Tax Credit ...........................................................................5
Renewable Production Tax Credit ....................................................................5
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System ...............................................6
R enewable Energy Resources—Review/Recommendations ............................6
Hydropower .............................................................................................................6
Biofuels .......................................................................................................................7
Solar Photovoltaic ..................................................................................................8
Wind Energy .............................................................................................................8
Future of United States Renewable Energy Policy .....................................9
Summary ............................................................................................................................11
References ........................................................................................................................12
Chapter 2 R enewables and Regulatory Requirements of the
United States ..............................................................................17
S. Rao Chitikela
Introduction ......................................................................................................................17
US-Code, Law, and Act—Renewable Energy .......................................................19
Renewable Energy Standards ....................................................................................20
Renewable Portfolio Standards—The State of Connecticut, Example .......25
Renewable Portfolio Standards Eligibility—The State of California,
Example ..................................................................................................................27
iii
iv CoNTENTS
Local Government on Renewable Energy Projects—State of Virginia,
Example ..................................................................................................................28
Solar and Wind Energy Rule—Bureau of Land Management .......................31
RE Programs—Bureau of ocean Energy Management ....................................33
Renewables—Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ..................................34
Summary ...........................................................................................................................35
Disclaimer .........................................................................................................................35
References ........................................................................................................................36
Chapter 3 Biofuels: Ethanol and Biodiesel .............................................39
William F. Ritter
Ethanol ...............................................................................................................................39
Introduction ..........................................................................................................39
Legislation ..............................................................................................................40
Classes of Ethanol ................................................................................................41
Processing of Corn Ethanol ..............................................................................42
Cellulosic Ethanol Processing ..........................................................................43
US Ethanol Production ......................................................................................44
Greenhouse Gases ..............................................................................................46
Water Quality Impacts .......................................................................................48
Pros and Cons of Ethanol ..................................................................................52
Biodiesel ............................................................................................................................53
Introduction ..........................................................................................................53
Biodiesel Processing ...........................................................................................54
Classes of Biodiesel Blends ..............................................................................55
US Biodiesel Production ...................................................................................55
Summary ...........................................................................................................................57
References ........................................................................................................................57
Chapter 4 Micro-Hydropower: Concept, System Design,
and Innovations .......................................................................61
Tamim Younos, Juneseok Lee
Introduction .....................................................................................................................61
Micro-Hydropower Generation: Concept .............................................................62
Micro-Hydropower System Design .........................................................................64
Case Study Site .....................................................................................................64
Micro-Hydropower System Design Components ...................................65
Hydraulic Component Design ........................................................................65
Mechanical Component Design ....................................................................68
Electrical Component Design .........................................................................71
Case Study Project Cost ....................................................................................75
Cost–Benefit Analysis .........................................................................................75
Regulatory Requirements—Case Study Site .............................................76
Micro-Hydropower: Viable Technology in Developing Countries ...............76
CoNTENTS v
Small-Stream Micro-Hydropower: Challenges and Limitations ....................78
Emerging Micro- and Small-Hydropower Technologies .................................79
Summary ...........................................................................................................................80
Appendix A. Bill of Materials (Equipment, 2013 Prices) ....................................81
Appendix B. Bill of Materials (Supplies/Materials, 2013 Prices) ......................88
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................90
Disclaimer .........................................................................................................................90
References ........................................................................................................................90
Chapter 5 B iogas-to-Energy—The Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Systems .....................................................................................93
S. Rao Chitikela, William F. Ritter
Introduction .....................................................................................................................93
Biogas Generation Systems—Theory and Practice ...........................................94
Anaerobic Digestion of Livestock and Poultry Manure ...................................96
S ludges/Biosolids and Biogas-to-Energy—US Regulations .........................101
B iogas-to-Electric Generation and Combined Heat and Power .................102
Economics of Livestock and Poultry Manure Anaerobic Digestion ...........105
Biogas in the Circular Economy ..............................................................................107
Summary .........................................................................................................................110
References .......................................................................................................................111
Chapter 6 Fuel Cells for Renewable Wastewater Infrastructure .........113
Bhuvan Vemuri, Govinda Chilkoor, Jawahar Kalimuthu, Ammi
Amarnath, James E. Kilduff, Venkataramana Gadhamshetty
Introduction ...................................................................................................................113
Hydrogen ........................................................................................................................116
Biological Processes for Hydrogen Production ......................................116
Dark Fermentation .............................................................................................117
Microbial Electrolysis Cells .............................................................................118
Photofermentation ...........................................................................................119
Biophotolysis .......................................................................................................120
Fuel Cells .........................................................................................................................121
Hydrogen Fuel Cells ..........................................................................................124
Alkaline Fuel Cell ................................................................................................125
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell ...............................................................................126
Hydrogen and Hydrocarbon Fuel Cells .....................................................127
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells .........................................................................127
Solid oxide Fuel Cells .......................................................................................129
Microbial Fuel Cell .............................................................................................130
Summary .........................................................................................................................131
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................131
References ......................................................................................................................131
vi CoNTENTS
Chapter 7 Sustainable Desalination Using Renewable
Energy Sources ......................................................................135
Veera Gnaneswar Gude
Introduction ...................................................................................................................135
Desalination Technologies—Principles of operation ....................................136
Multistage Flash Desalination .......................................................................136
Multieffect Distillation .....................................................................................136
Vapor Compression ..........................................................................................137
Energy Efficiency of Thermal Desalination ..............................................137
Reverse osmosis ................................................................................................137
Renewable Energy Integration with Desalination Processes .......................138
Selection Process of the Desalination Process ..................................................142
Sustainability of Desalination Technologies ......................................................144
Environmental Impacts of Desalination Processes ...............................144
Brine Disposal .....................................................................................................144
Economic Considerations of Renewable Energy-Driven
Desalination Processes ......................................................................146
Regulatory Requirements ..............................................................................147
Social Aspects of Desalination Processes .................................................147
Summary .........................................................................................................................147
References ......................................................................................................................148
Chapter 8 Geothermal Energy ...............................................................151
Audrey Angelos, Guangdong Zhu
General Description ....................................................................................................151
Geothermal Resources ...............................................................................................152
Geothermal Resource Applications .......................................................................152
Geothermal Power Generation ...............................................................................154
Power Plant Types ........................................................................................................154
Dry Steam .............................................................................................................154
Flash ...................................................................................................................155
organic Rankine Cycle/Binary .......................................................................156
Current Status ................................................................................................................156
Worldwide Capacity .........................................................................................156
Technological Distribution .............................................................................157
Geothermal Direct Use ...............................................................................................157
Direct Heating Applications .....................................................................................158
Mineral Recovery ..........................................................................................................158
Energy Storage ..............................................................................................................159
Future Direction ...........................................................................................................159
Enhanced Geothermal Systems ...................................................................159
Hybridization opportunities with Concentrating Solar Power ........160
Perspective .....................................................................................................................160
References ......................................................................................................................161
CoNTENTS vii
Chapter 9 Wind Energy—Increasing Resilience in Water
Infrastructure .........................................................................163
Pamela A. Menges
Introduction ...................................................................................................................163
Wind Turbine Technologies ......................................................................................165
Wind Technology Powering Mechanical Systems............................................167
Efficiency and the Betz Limit....................................................................................170
Assessing Power from Wind .....................................................................................171
Turbine Technology, Applications, and Siting ...................................................172
Built Environment Wind Turbine ............................................................................173
Quantifying Turbulence and Turbulence Intensity ..........................................174
Energy and Water .........................................................................................................175
Role of Wind Energy in Water Infrastructure Security ....................................178
Emerging Technologies .............................................................................................179
Summary .........................................................................................................................181
References ......................................................................................................................181
Chapter 10 Solar Energy and Water/Wastewater Infrastructure ........183
Venkata Gullapalli
Introduction ...................................................................................................................183
Solar Radiation ..............................................................................................................183
Solar Photovoltaics ......................................................................................................184
Solar Thermal .................................................................................................................185
S olar Photovoltaics and Concentrating Solar Power Comparison .............186
Solar in Water Industry ...............................................................................................187
Desalination ...................................................................................................................189
Thermal Technologies .....................................................................................189
Membrane Technologies ................................................................................190
Solar in Desalination ...................................................................................................190
Solar Water Disinfection ............................................................................................191
Wastewater Processing ..............................................................................................193
Solar in Wastewater Processing ..............................................................................194
Summary .........................................................................................................................195
References ......................................................................................................................196
Chapter 11 Renewable Energy Technologies for Water Quality
Monitoring ...........................................................................199
Varun K. Kasaraneni
Introduction ...................................................................................................................199
Solar-Powered Monitoring Networks ...................................................................201
Stormwater Sampling and Monitoring......................................................201
Discharge and Nonpoint Source Monitoring ..........................................202
Water Quality Monitoring with Data Buoys .............................................205
Microbial Fuel Cells for Water Quality Monitoring ...........................................206
viii CoNTENTS
Summary .........................................................................................................................211
References ......................................................................................................................211
Chapter 12 I ntegrating Renewable Energy in Water Infrastructure:
Global Trends and Future Outlook ........................................213
Juneseok Lee, Tamim Younos
Introduction ...................................................................................................................213
Background ....................................................................................................................214
Water and Energy Nexus.................................................................................214
Water and Energy Conservation ..................................................................215
Applications of Renewable Energy in the Water Industry ............................215
Solar Energy.........................................................................................................215
Wind Energy ........................................................................................................217
outlook ............................................................................................................................218
Summary .........................................................................................................................220
References ......................................................................................................................221
Appendix .....................................................................................................225
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations .....................................................................225
Index ............................................................................................................231
Preface
Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) Task Committee of the Environmental
and Water Resources Institute (EWRI) was formed in 2016 with the objectives
toward accomplishing on water infrastructure and the application of
sustainability and resilience requirements. Thus, this task committee has been
working on advancement on knowledge of field-proven RETs for the operation
of water infrastructure meeting the triple bottom line. The task committee has
successfully accomplished the selection and writing on various renewable energy
(RE) technologies and proven application to water infrastructure. Following the
task committee’s success, a new full standing committee, called the Advancing
Renewable Energy Technologies Committee (ARETC) of EWRI, has now been
formed.
The planning and inclusion of 12 chapters of this book encompass the
applicable and critical review details on: RE policy and regulatory requirements;
micro-hydro power; biofuels; biogas-to-energy; fuel cells for clean water;
sustainable desalination; geothermal energy; solar and wind energy toward a
resilient water infrastructure; the application of renewables for the monitoring of
water quality; and renewable energy applications to water infrastructure.
We, ARETC, pay our sincere and highest respects to Mr. Alexander
Krokus—who has been an inspiration, provided constant encouragement,
and watched of high expectations for the ARETC—on the sad demise,
and we pray for his great soul rest in peace.
The book chapters put forward knowledge on the application(s) of renewables
toward effectively operating water infrastructure into the future. The authors
converged on the following aspects on invaluable and sound policy, regulation,
science, and engineering with respect to the development and application of
renewables:
• To gear up on renewables, subsidies on fossil-fuel energy applications must be
significantly reduced and an immediate boost to RE funds should be provided;
and this approach would help safeguard humankind from ongoing uncertain
weather patterns and havoc. The federal agency efforts, such as by the Bureau
of Land Management (BLM), Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM),
and Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), based on the effective
RE legislative actions, are appreciative (to date) in terms of the production and
consumption of RE at more than 9.5 quintillion J (9.0 quadrillion Btu) and the
resultant significant reduction of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Moreover, the
Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA 2007) has been instrumental
in the production of renewable fuels (Chapters 1 and 2).
ix