Table Of Content

RemoteSensing Imagery Remote Sensing Imagery Edited by Florence Tupin Jordi Inglada Jean-Marie Nicolas Firstpublished2014inGreatBritainandtheUnitedStatesbyISTELtdandJohnWiley&Sons,Inc. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,thispublicationmayonlybereproduced, storedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withthepriorpermissioninwritingofthepublishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentionedaddress: ISTELtd JohnWiley&Sons,Inc. 27-37StGeorge’sRoad 111RiverStreet LondonSW194EU Hoboken,NJ07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com ©ISTELtd2014 TherightsofFlorenceTupin,JordiIngladaandJean-MarieNicolastobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthis workhavebeenassertedbytheminaccordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988. LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2013955375 BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData ACIPrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN978-1-84821-508-5 PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyCPIGroup(UK)Ltd.,Croydon,SurreyCR04YY Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii FlorenceTUPIN,Jean-MarieNICOLASandJordiINGLADA PART1.SYSTEMS,SENSORSANDACQUISITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter1.SystemsandConstraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Jean-MarieNICOLAS 1.1.Satellitesystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2.Kepler’sandNewton’slaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3.Thequasi-circularorbitsofremotesensingsatellites . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.3.1.Theorbitintheterrestrialreferential: therecurrencecycle . . . . 8 1.3.2.TheeffectsoftheEarth’sflattening: theprecessionoftheorbits . 12 1.3.3.Heliosynchronousorbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.4.Trackingtheorbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.5.Usualorbitsforremotesensingsatellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.4.Imageacquisitionandsensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.4.1.Perspectiverayinopticalimageryforaverticalviewing. . . . . . 18 1.4.2.Perspectiverayinradarimaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.4.3.Resolutionandfootprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.4.4.Theswathinsatelliteimagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.4.5.Imagesandmotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.5.Spectralresolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 1.5.1.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 1.5.2.Technologicalconstraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1.5.3.Calibrationandcorrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 1.5.4.Imagetransmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 vi RemoteSensingImagery Chapter2.ImageGeometryandRegistration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Jean-MarieNICOLASandJordiINGLADA 2.1.Thedigitalimageanditssampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.1.1.Swathsampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.1.2.Thepixelsinopticalimageryandinradarimagery . . . . . . . . . 36 2.2.Sensoragilityandincidenceangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.2.1.Agilityofopticalsensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.2.2.Agilityofradarsensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.2.3.Theeffectsoftheincidencevariationonthegroundcellsize . . . 38 2.2.4.Theconsequencesofagility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.3.Georeferencingofremotesensingimages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.3.1.Fromanimagetoanorthoimage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.3.2.ThemetaparametersofVHRopticalimages . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 2.3.3.Thelevelsoftheimages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.3.4.SARimagespecificities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.4.Imageregistration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.4.1.Theneedforimageregistration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.4.2.Modelingtheproblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.5.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Chapter3.ThePhysicsofOpticalRemoteSensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 OlivierHAGOLLE 3.1.Radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.1.1. Radiant energy, spectral energy, spectral sensitivity and equivalentenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.1.2.Theflux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.1.3.Theirradiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.1.4.Theradiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.1.5.Temperatureandemissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.1.6.Reflectanceandalbedo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.1.7.Exampleoftheuseofphotometricquantities . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.2.Geometricetendue,sensitivityofaninstrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.2.1.Axissensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.2.2.Scanners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.2.3.Pushbrooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.3.Atmosphericeffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.3.1.Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.3.2.Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.3.3.Radiativetransferintheatmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.3.4.Magnitudeordersoftheatmosphericeffects . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.4.Spectralpropertiesofthesurfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.5.Directionalpropertiesofthesurfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 TableofContents vii 3.6. Practical aspects: products, atmospheric corrections, directional corrections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.6.1.Absorptioncorrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.6.2.Scatteringcorrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.6.3.Examplesofatmosphericcorrectionresults . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Chapter4.ThePhysicsofRadarMeasurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Jean-ClaudeSOUYRIS 4.1.Propagationandpolarizationofelectromagneticwaves . . . . . . . . . 83 4.1.1.Propagationofelectromagneticwaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.1.2.Polarizationoftheelectromagneticwaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.1.3.Partiallypolarizedwaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.1.4.ThegroupofPaulimatricesandtheStokesparameters . . . . . . 94 4.2.Radarsignatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.2.1.RCSofapointtarget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.2.2.Radarsignatureforextendedtargets–thebackscattercoefficientσo 100 4.3.Thebasicsofradar measurementphysics: interactionbetweenwaves andnaturalsurfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.3.1.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.3.2.Baresoilscattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.3.3.Seasurfacescattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.3.4.Volumescattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.3.5.Thepenetrationpropertiesofelectromagneticwaves. . . . . . . . 115 4.3.6.Theeffectsofslopeonradiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 4.4.Calibrationofradarimages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 4.5.Radarpolarimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4.5.1.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4.5.2.Operatingprinciplesofthepolarimetricradar. . . . . . . . . . . . 120 PART2.PHYSICSANDDATAPROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Chapter5.ImageProcessingTechniquesforRemoteSensing . . . . . . . . 125 FlorenceTUPIN,JordiINGLADAandGrégoireMERCIER 5.1.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5.2.Imagestatistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.2.1.Statisticsofopticalimages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.2.2.Radardatastatistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.3.Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.3.1.Samplinganddeconvolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.3.2.Denoising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.4.Imagesegmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.4.1.Panoramaofsegmentationmethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.4.2.MDLmethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 viii RemoteSensingImagery 5.4.3.Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.4.4.Mean-shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 5.4.5.Edgedetection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.5.Informationextraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.5.1.Pointtargetdetectioninradarimagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 5.5.2. Interestpointdetectionanddescriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.5.3.Networkdetection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.5.4.Detectionandrecognitionofextendedobjects . . . . . . . . . . . 139 5.5.5.Spatialreasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.6.Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.6.1.Bayesianapproachesandoptimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.6.2.SupportVectorMachines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 5.6.3.Neuralnetworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 5.7.Dimensionalityreduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.7.1.Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.7.2.Principalcomponentanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 5.7.3.Otherlinearmethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.7.4.Nonlinearmethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.7.5.Componentselection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5.8.Informationfusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5.8.1.Probabilisticfusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 5.8.2.Fuzzyfusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 5.8.3.Evidencetheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 5.8.4.Possibilisticfusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 5.9.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Chapter6.PassiveOpticalDataProcessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 DevisTUIA 6.1.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 6.2.Pansharpening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 6.2.1.Spectralmethods: projection-substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 6.2.2.Space-scalemethods: multiresolutionpansharpening . . . . . . . 158 6.3.Spectralindicesandspatialindices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.3.1.Vegetationindices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.3.2.Water-relatedindices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6.3.3.Indicesrelativetocloudproperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 6.3.4.Surfacetexture: occurrenceandco-occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . 164 6.3.5.Geometricalindicesofsurfaces: morphologicalindicesinurban areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 6.4.Productsissuedfrompassiveopticalimages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 6.4.1.Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6.4.2.Subpixelmixtureanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 6.5.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

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