Remote Sensing Applications to Groundwater - Hydrologie.org

312 Pages·2007·26.39 MB·English

United Nations International
Educational, Scientific and Hydrological
Cultural Organization Programme
RREEMMOOTTEE SSEENNSSIINNGG
AAPPPPLLIICCAATTIIOONNSS
GGRROOUUNNDDWWAATTEERR
ttoo
A.M.J. Meijerink
With contributions by
D. Bannert
O. Batelaan
M.W. Lubczynski
T. Pointet
IHP-VI, Series on Groundwater No.16
The designations employed and the presentation of
material throughout the publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of
UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Published in 2007 by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
7, Place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP (France)
Composed by Marina Rubio, 93200 Saint-Denis
Printed by
IHP/2007/GW/16
SC-2007WS/53
© UNESCO 2007
Printed in France
FFOORREEWWOORRDD
In 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development recognized that the scarcity of water information in
many developing countries was one of the main obstacles to achieving sustainable development and attaining the
Millennium Development Goals. The alarming degradation of water monitoring systems and the obsolescence of
in situ measurement equipment in developing countries necessitated additional new solutions to improve water
governance based upon reliable and timely water information.
Earth Observation technologies and water cycle observation can help fill these gaps. Different aspects of
current global changes affect the water cycle; satellite remote sensing provides a valuable global overview that can
monitor changes in rainfall, extent of water bodies, vegetation and – at a more local level – help to identify zones
with groundwater potential. The keys to ensuring that Earth Observation data and services are accessible to water
resource studies practitioners are education and training – as well as availability of the necessary tools and infor-
mation resources.
Groundwater plays an important role in the world: it feed springs and streams, supports wetlands, and main-
tains land surface stability. Groundwater is a significant global resource, comprising 96% of the Earth’s unfrozen
freshwater, as well as being the main water source in many water-scarce areas. The application of satellite remote
sensing to groundwater studies presents many challenges. This manual offers guidance to the many free tools and
resources available to practitioners, with information on their proven applicability in practice. It also incorporates
examples from various application projects, providing the reader with an excellent panorama of the different appli-
cations of Earth Observation data for groundwater management.
UNESCO and the European Space Agency (ESA), through their different applications and education pro-
grammes, support the development and promotion of good practices in the use of Earth Observation technology
to overcome the water information gap that exists in many developing countries. As an example, the AQUIFER
project of ESA is developing different information products based on data from the ENVISAT Earth Observation
missions to improve the transboundary management of two large aquifer systems in North Africa. UNESCO’s
International Hydrological Programme (IHP) is providing methodological and technical advice for the better
management of these groundwater resources through a series of projects. UNESCO’s International Geoscience
Programme is contributing to capacity-building efforts for the application of satellite information.
The European Space Agency’s ERS and ASAR data have been widely used in analysing ground surface
movements caused by pumping or recharge of groundwater, in addition to interpretation of hydrogeological
features. The new generation of satellite systems will improve capacity. New scientific missions, such as
ESA’s SMOS mission will provide fresh data on soil moisture, while the upcoming sentinel series will observe the
Earth at high resolution, thereby opening the door to new applications and information services, also for use in
the context of groundwater management. The use of gravity data supplied by, for example, the GOCE and
GRACE missions, is another recent development that shows great potential for monitoring large scale changes in
groundwater.
The lack of qualified specialists to exploit these new capacities is recognized as a major constraint to the suc-
cessful implementation of remote sensing applications programmes, particularly in developing countries. There is
therefore a pressing need to facilitate knowledge and technology transfers, especially to Africa, where in many
areas the lack of water is a serious constraint to development and scarce information limits proper management of
the resource. Towards that end, UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme and the European Space
Agency have cooperated with other space agencies, UN organizations and African partner organizations, which
use satellite data within the framework of the TIGER project, to develop a network of experts to strengthen the
scientific base and work towards developing sustainable satellite-based information services to support water
resources management. Although global in scope, this manual was devised as a contribution to the TIGER
project.
András Szöllösi-Nagy Stephen Briggs
The Deputy Assistant Director General Head of the Earth Observation Science
for Natural Sciences and Applications Department
Secretary of the International European Space Agency,
Hydrological Programme ESA Centre
UNESCO for Earth Observation (ESRIN)
AACCKKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEEMMEENNTTSS
The introductory chapter is written by D. Bannert and A.M.J. Meijerink. The case study on Cape Vert, Senegal
(section 6.2.2) is a contribution by T. Pointet. The extensive case study on karst in Viet Nam (section 9.5) is
written by O. Batelaan, while Chapter 11 on Image data and groundwater modelling is by M.W. Lubczynski and
A.M.J. Meijerink. The latter author is responsible for the remaining text of the book.
The author and contributors thank UNESCO staff, in particular Dr A. Lipponen and also Dr A. Aureli, of
the Division of Water Sciences, for their initiative, organizing meetings for the contributors, coordination and
supplying information. D. McDonald is thanked for taking care of the final editing.
The Directorate of the International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation (ITC)
offered office space and facilities while writing this book and several staff members of ITC provided material and
critically read certain sections. Much of the content is derived from studies carried out during the long affiliation
of the author with ITC and with students and collegues of various institutions worldwide, all of whom are grate-
fully acknowledged.
Prof. J.J. de Vries is thanked for his review, and so are the authors who permitted use of figures; they are
mentioned in the captions and references.
The constructive comments to chapters 11 and 12 by J. van der Gun are gratefully acknowledged.

CCOONNTTEENNTTSS
1 INTRODUCTION 15
1.1 Why this book? 15
1.2 About this book 15
1.3 Availability of remote sensing images and image processing software 16
1.4 About the contents 17
1.5 Remarks 21
REMOTE SENSING DATA AND TECHNIQUES PPAARRTT II
2 PROCESSING OF MULTI-SPECTRAL IMAGES 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Parts of the electromagnetic spectrum used for recording images 23
2.3 Use of aerial photography 24
2.3.1 General aspects 24
2.3.2 Scale, stereo and relief displacement 25
2.4 Multi-spectral data 26
2.4.1 A digital image 26
2.4.2 DNs and energy interaction 28
2.4.3 Examples of relative spectral signatures 28
Soils 29
2.5 Image enhancement methods 30
2.5.1 Histogram operations 30
2.5.2 Lineaments 32
2.5.3 Filters for the enhancement of lineaments, ‘high pass filters’ 32
2.5.4 Automated lineament detection 37
2.6 Colour composites 37
2.6.1 Red Green Blue (RGB) colour system 37
2.6.2 Hue Saturation Intensity colour system (ISH or IHS) 38
2.7 Transformations often used in hydrogeologic interpretation and data extraction 39
2.7.1 Principal component (PC) transform 39
2.7.2 Ratioing 41
2.8 Radiometric correction 42
2.8.1 Conversion of DNs into radiances 42
2.8.2 Correction for solar irradiance 43
2.9 Vegetation index 44
2.9.1 Applications 44
2.9.2 The NDVI transform 44
2.9.3 Comparing NDVI images of different dates 46
2.9.4 Other Vegetation Indices 47
2.10 Multi-spectral classification 47
2.10.1 Applications 47
2.10.2 Simple classification 48
2.10.3 Supervised classification 49
2.10.4 Supervised classification algorithms 51
2.11 Stereo satellite images 53
2.12 Image Combination or Fusion 53
2.13 Final remarks 54
References 55
3
GEOMETRIC ASPECTS, USE OF DIGITAL ELEVATION MODELS, GIS 57
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Digital elevation model 57
3.2.1 Structure, TIN or Raster 57
3.2.2 Acquisition of a DEM 58
3.3 Map projections 59
3.4 Two-dimensional transforms 61
3.4.1 Georeferencing 61
3.4.2 Geocoding 61
3.5 Three-dimensional transforms 62
3.5.1 Transfer of data 62
3.5.2 Monoplotting 62
3.5.3 Ortho-image 63
3.5.4 Creation of DEM using automated photogrammetry 63
3.6 Use of Geographical Information System (GIS) 63
3.7 Summary and conclusions 65
References 65
4 RADAR IMAGES 67
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Radar images 67
4.2.1 Imaging principle 67
4.2.2 Commonly used imaging radar bands 68
4.2.3 Microwave polarizations 69
4.2.4 Microwave and object interactions 69
4.2.5 Data formats 70
4.2.6 Distortions in radar images 70
4.2.7 Speckle 71
4.3 Interpretation aspects of radar images 72
4.3.1 Terrain analysis 72
4.3.2 Lineament mapping 73
4.3.3 Geologic interpretation 73
4.3.4 Ground penetration 74
4.4 Image fusion 76
4.5 Stereo radar images 79
4.6 3D information and precision measurement of land subsidence by radar interferometry 79
4.6.1 SAR Interferometry (INSAR), SRTM DEM 79
4.6.2 Hydrogeological application of SRTM data 80
4.6.3 Differential INSAR: Land subsidence and uplift 80
4.6.4 Implementation and outlook 83
4.7 Radar altimetry, LIDAR, Laser 83
4.8 Soil moisture and radar/microwave remote sensing 84
4.8.1 Image interpretation 84
4.8.2 Volumetric soil moisture 85
4.9 Summary and conclusions 86
References 86
5 THERMAL IMAGES 89
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 General aspects 90
5.2.1 Derivation of the surface temperature differences of water 90
5.2.2 Thermal contrasts caused by outflow of groundwater, submarine groundwater discharge 93
5.2.3 Estimation of discharge of submarine springs 95
5.2.4 Estimation of discharge of hot springs in a lake 96
5.2.5 Thermal anomalies in rivers 97
5.2.6 Groundwater emergence along a fault 97
5.2.7 Outflow of springs on land 98
5.2.8 Relief enhanced by a thermal image 98
5.3 Rock emissivity mapping 99
5.4 Use of thermal imagery for evapotranspiration, hydrogeological applications 100
5.5 Summary and conclusions 100
References 100
HYDROGEOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
PPAARRTT IIII
IN VARIOUS TYPES OF TERRAIN
6 HYDROGEOLOGICAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION 99
6.1 Introduction 103
6.1.1 Geological and geomorphological interpretation 104
6.1.2 Drainage density and permeability 104
6.1.3 A practical guide 105
6.2 Hydrogeological interpretations of sedimentary rock terrain 107
6.2.1 Example 1. Area around Kalava, Andhra Pradesh, India 107
6.2.2 Example 2. Cape Vert peninsula, Senegal 109
References 111
7 TERRAIN CONSISTING OF UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS 113
7.1 Introduction 113
7.2 Geomorphology, Quaternary geology and hydrogeological properties 113
7.2.1 Fluvial deposits and landforms 113
7.2.2 Eolian deposits 114
7.2.3 Lacustrine deposits 115
7.2.4 Coastal deposits 116
7.2.5 Glacial and periglacial deposits 116
7.3 Image interpretation at sub-regional scale, overviews 116
7.3.1 Identification of aquifer, Area around Pati, Central Java, Indonesia 116
7.3.2 Effects of past climatic change on fluvial and tidal deposits, Area in SW Gujarat, India 117
7.3.3 Interpretation of local aquifers, Cauvery delta, S India 119
7.3.4 Eolian, fluvial and marine deposits, Mozambique 120
7.3.5 Verification of modelling response, Kalahari Sands and Zambezi floodplain, Zambia 121
7.3.6 Regional setting and study of a groundwater related problem in the Pampas region of Argentina122
7.4 Alluvial fans 125
7.4.1 Origin 125
7.4.2 Interpretation of thickness 126
7.4.3 Hydrogeology 126
7.4.4 Alluvial fans and hydrogeology of a subsidence basin, N. Iran. 128
7.4.5 Effect of tectonics and example of Eastern Doon Valley, N. India 130
7.5 Summary and conclusions 132
References 132
8 VOLCANIC TERRAIN 135
8.1 Introduction 135
8.2 Specific volcanic terrain 135
8.2.1 Some volcanic landforms 135
8.3 Stratovolcanoes 138
8.3.1 Hydrogeology 138
8.3.2 Upper, middle and lower volcano 138
8.3.3 Image interpretation, flow systems and simple modelling 141
8.3.4 Springs in volcanic terrain 142
8.3.5 Interpretation of lineaments 144
8.3.6 Lineaments and springs in Amboseli, Kenya 145
8.3.7 Limitation of lineament analysis in Rift area, Ethiopia 147
8.4 Flood basalt terrain 147
8.4.1 Introduction 147
8.4.2 Image interpretation of structural elements 149
8.4.3 Geomorphological interpretation and image processing 153
8.4.4 Image interpretation and conceptual model of possible sub-regional flow system 154
8.5 Summary and conclusions 156
References 156
9 KARST TERRAIN 157
9.1 Introduction 157
9.2 Surface karst 158
9.2.1 Karst landforms and images 158
9.2.2 Recharge aspects 161
9.3 Covered karst 162
9.3.1 Examples of collapse sinkholes and shallow subsidence 162
9.3.2 Covered karst aquifer, example of Borunda, Rajasthan, India 163
9.4 Image processing and interpretations of sink-spring relations 164
9.4.1 Example in Dinaric karst 164
9.4.2 Example of a karst area in Romania 165
9.5 Remote sensing studies of karst terrain in Viet Nam 168
9.5.1 Introduction 168
9.5.2 Lineament extraction 170
9.5.3 Lineament analysis 171
9.5.4 Lineament-length density and specific capacity 172