Rembrandt's anatomy lessons

243 Pages·2014·10.28 MB·English

by  Baige & Peter

Rembrandt’s anatomy lessons

Baige Elise Smith
Bachelor of Fine Arts (First Class Honours)
The University of Western Australia

This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Fine Arts of
The University of Western Australia
School of Architecture, Landscape & Visual Arts

© 2010
Abstract
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It is well known that the seventeenth-century Dutch artist Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) was
involved with Holland’s anatomical realm. It is also widely known that the Dutch anatomy
theatres made a dramatic spectacle of death, as conveyed by the curiosities, artworks and public
dissections staged there. However, few scholars have examined the extent to which
Rembrandt’s anatomical experiences shaped aspects of his artistic development, particularly his
approach to the subject of bodily mortality. This research investigates this issue through an
analysis of selected artworks. The obvious starting point for this investigation is Rembrandt’s
portrait of The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp. Examination of this work reveals
Rembrandt’s use of many formal and symbolic conventions derived from anatomical imagery,
which he applied to his artwork in interesting and innovative ways. It also shows how
Rembrandt used his firsthand experience in anatomical dissections to depict the mortality of the
body in an incredibly direct and physically engaging way. Finally, it demonstrates how
Rembrandt integrated the principal theological and moral concerns of Dutch anatomical culture
into his work, to highlight a very prominent issue of the time: the transience of earthly life. This
research will furthermore reveal how Rembrandt continued to apply these strategies to other
artworks produced over his career, many of which were not explicitly concerned with
anatomical subject matter. Studied in chronological order, these works include The Descent
from the Cross, The Sacrifice of Isaac, Self-Portrait with Dead Bittern, the Slaughtered Ox
paintings, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Joan Deyman, the Lucretia images, and a number of self-
portraits and portraits. In addition to sharing the same basic strategies identified in Rembrandt’s
earlier anatomical portrait, these images also exhibit other features that reflect the influence of
Rembrandt’s experiences in the anatomical realm. The most important of these is what I refer to
as Rembrandt’s ‘phenomenological painting style’, in which he used the substance of paint as a
powerful painterly metonym for flesh, especially dead or dying flesh. Rembrandt’s use of this
technique enabled him to provide a highly affecting sense of the mortality of the flesh, akin to
what he had witnessed in the Dutch anatomy theatres. This thesis thus proposes that
Rembrandt’s experiences in the anatomical sphere were critical to his development as an artist,
particularly as a painter of bodily mortality.

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Preface
____________________________________________________________

When I was completing my undergraduate studies in the late 1990s and early 2000s, a range of
exhibitions appeared that greatly captured my interest. These exhibitions included The
Ingenious Machine of Nature: Four Centuries of Art and Anatomy, The Quick and the Dead:
Artists and Anatomy, Spectacular Bodies: The Art and Science of the Human Body from
Leonardo to Now, and the notorious Body Worlds show. Intrigued by these exhibitions, which
explored the historical intersections between art and anatomy, I decided to undertake doctoral
research in the field, focusing on the impact of anatomical culture on artistic production in early
modern Europe. However, after conducting considerable research on the subject it became
impossible to ignore the uniqueness of Rembrandt, whose anatomical portraits seemed to
encapsulate the philosophical and psychological underpinnings of early modern anatomy much
more boldly and dramatically than any other artworks I had seen. In studying these paintings, it
became increasingly apparent to me that Rembrandt’s experiences in the anatomical sphere
influenced his representation of bodily mortality in particular, and this led me to question to
what extent his anatomical experiences also shaped his portrayal of mortality in other artworks,
including those that were not explicitly concerned with anatomical subject matter. I would find
much evidence to support my hypothesis that they did, yet found minimal scholarship
addressing this issue. It was at this point that my final thesis took shape, evolving from a study
of art and anatomy in early modern Europe into a very specific investigation of the role of
anatomy within Rembrandt’s art, particularly his paintings of bodily mortality.

My journey into the world of Rembrandt scholarship has therefore been somewhat
unconventional, and this has presented both disadvantages and advantages for my work. For
example, I came to this study lacking some of the expertise that one might expect within this
field, such as knowledge of the Dutch language, and this has limited my access to some
scholarly literature, particularly Dutch archival material. However, my unusual background has
also created interesting opportunities for me to analyze Rembrandt’s work in ways that others
have not done. For example, my comprehensive knowledge of the history of artistic and
anatomical exchange in early modern Europe has enabled me to view Rembrandt’s work in
relation to this broader cultural phenomenon, observing how his art corresponds with, but also
departs significantly from, established traditions. Similarly, my application of contemporary art
historical models of analysis, including psychoanalytic and phenomenological theory, has
offered new and original ways of reading Rembrandt’s works. This has been particularly critical
to my examination of Rembrandt’s ‘phenomenological painting style’, a term that I have
developed to highlight the incredibly visceral nature of his paintwork, which I relate directly to
his experiences in the Dutch anatomy theatres. Thus, while there are certain limitations to this
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research, it also offers new ways of thinking about Rembrandt’s art and his place in the larger
history of artistic and anatomical interchange, and ultimately serves to illuminate Rembrandt’s
unique achievements, as an artist who used his engagement with the anatomical sphere to create
highly original works of art that confront the reality of our shared corporeality and mortality in
deeply affecting ways.
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Acknowledgements
____________________________________________________________

Many people assisted my completion of this thesis. Foremost among them is my supervisor,
Winthrop Professor Ian McLean. I was fortunate enough to study under Ian as an undergraduate
student and later worked under his supervision in the honours and doctoral programs at UWA.
Ian is a gifted scholar and a model supervisor, who allowed me to explore and experiment with
ideas while ultimately guiding me towards completion. It has been a wonderful experience
working with him and I have learned a great deal through his example. The former Dean and
Head of School, Professor Clarissa Ball, has been another important figure throughout my
enrolment at UWA. Her first year lectures ignited my passion for art history, and her continued
support enabled me to pursue various research and teaching interests at the postgraduate level.
Other members of the faculty, such as Professor Richard Read, have offered additional support,
providing constructive feedback and warm encouragement that greatly benefited my work.
Many of these faculty members also played a crucial role in my application for awards and
scholarships at the University, such as the Australian Postgraduate Award, a Postgraduate
Student Travel Award, the Tarling-Hetherington Scholarship in Fine Arts, the Margaret and
Herbert Horsfall Memorial Bursary, and a Completion Scholarship. These awards enabled me to
travel overseas on several occasions to conduct research and to participate in international
conferences, and I am extremely grateful to the faculty and the wider university for supporting
my research through these awards. Finally, I would like to thank my wonderful friends and
family, who have contributed in various ways. I am particularly thankful to my good friend and
colleague Dr. Nicole Sully, who provided much-needed advice and assistance, especially during
the final editing phases. I also owe special thanks to my family for their kind support. Most
importantly, however, I would like to thank my partner Peter, who has been an unerring source
of encouragement, empathy and enthusiasm until the very end. ¡Muchas gracias!

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Table of Contents
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List of Illustrations vii

Introduction 1

Chapter I: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632) 34

Chapter II: Early Religious Works and Dead Animal Flesh (1633-1655) 66

Chapter III: The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Joan Deyman (1656) 103

Chapter IV: The Death of Lucretia (1664-1666) 132

Chapter V: The Self-Portraits (1625-1669) 169

Conclusion 201

Notes 207

Bibliography 221

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List of Illustrations
____________________________________________________________

1. Bartholomeus Dolendo after Jan Cornelisz Woudanus, The anatomical theatre in Leiden,
1609, engraving, 46.6 x 55.8 cm, Rijksprentenkabinet, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam……………..3
2. Rembrandt, The Skeleton Rider, c.1649-1650, drawing, Hessisches Landesmuseum,
Darmstadt ………………………………………………………………………………………...3
3. Michelangelo, David, c.1501-1504, Carrara marble, 517 cm high, Galleria dell'Accademia,
Florence………………………………………………………………………………………….13
4. Michelangelo, The Dying Slave, c.1513-1516, marble, 228 cm high, Musée du Louvre, Paris
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...13
5. Michelangelo, Detail of The Last Judgment, c.1534-1541, fresco, 1370 x 1200 cm, Sistine
Chapel, Vatican City………………………………………………………………………….…14
6. Federico Zuccari or Bartolomeo Passerotti, The Artists’ Anatomy Lesson, sixteenth century,
oil on canvas, Borghese Gallery, Rome…………………………………………………………14
7. Engraving of a flayed man holding a dagger and his skin from Juan Valverde de Amusco,
Anatomia del corpo humano, Ant. Salamanca and Antonio Lafrery, Rome, 1560……………..16
8. Engravings of skeletons from Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica libri septem,
Joannes Oporinus, Basel, 1543………………………………………………………………….16
9. Titian, Tityus, c.1548-49, oil on canvas, 253 x 217 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...17
10. Titian, The Flaying of Marsyas, c.1575-76, oil on canvas, 212 x 207 cm, State Museum,
Kromeriz………………………………………………………………………………………....17
11. Hans Holbein the Younger, Vanitas, 1543, oil on panel, private collection, with one of the
engravings of skeletons from Vesalius featured in fig. 8………………………………………..19
12. Hans Holbein the Younger, The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb, 1521, oil on panel,
30.5 x 200 cm, Kunstmuseum, Basel…………………………………………….……………...19
13. Caravaggio, The Incredulity of Saint Thomas, c.1602-1603, oil on canvas, 107 x 146 cm,
Sanssouci, Potsdam……………………………………………………………………………...20
14. Caravaggio, The Resurrection of Lazarus, c. 1609, oil on canvas, 380 x 275 cm,
Museo Regionale, Messina………………………………………………………………………20
15. Peter Paul Rubens and Frans Snyders, Prometheus Bound, c.1611-12, oil on canvas,
243.5 x 209.5 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia…………………………………..22
16. Peter Paul Rubens, The Descent from the Cross, c.1612-14, oil on panel, 420 x 360 cm,
Cathedral of our Lady, Antwerp…………………………………………………………………22
17. Rembrandt, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632, oil on canvas, 169.5 x 216.5 cm,
Mauritshuis, The Hague ………………………………………………………………………...34
18. Portrait of Andreas Vesalius from Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica libri septem,
Joannes Oporinus, Basel, 1543…………………………………………………………………..39
19. Dissection scene from Johannes de Ketham, Fasciculo de medicina, Zuane & Gregorio di
Gregorii, Venice, 1493…………………………………………………………………………..43
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20. Dissection scene from Jacopo Berengario da Carpi, Isagogae breves, perlucidae ac uberrimae,
in anatomiam humani corporis, Benedictus Hector, Bologna, 1523……………………………45
21. Skeleton image from Jacopo Berengario da Carpi, Isagogae breves, perlucidae ac uberrimae,
in anatomiam humani corporis, Benedictus Hector, Bologna, 1523……………………………45
22. Self-demonstrating figure from Jacopo Berengario da Carpi, Isagogae breves, perlucidae ac
uberrimae, in anatomiam humani corporis, Benedictus Hector, Bologna, 1523………………..46
23. Self-demonstrating figure from Jacopo Berengario da Carpi, Isagogae breves, perlucidae ac
uberrimae, in anatomiam humani corporis, Benedictus Hector, Bologna, 1523………………..46
24. Engravings of flayed musclemen from Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica libri
septem, Joannes Oporinus, Basel, 1543………………………………………………………….48
25. Frontispiece from Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica libri septem, Joannes
Oporinus, Basel, 1543…………………………………………………………………….……..50
26. Aert Pietersz, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Sebastiaen Egbertsz, 1603, oil on canvas,
147 x 392 cm, Amsterdam Historical Museum, Amsterdam……………………………………52
27. Michiel (and Pieter?) van Mierevelt, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer,
1617, oil on canvas, 150 x 255 cm, Stedelijk Museum Het Prinsenhof, Delft …………………52
28. Detail of the Mierevelt portrait featured in fig. 27, with one of the engravings of flayed
musclemen from Vesalius featured in fig. 24……………………………………………………54
29. Attributed to Nicolaes Eliasz Pickenoy, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Sebastiaen Egbertsz,
1619, oil on canvas, 135 x 186 cm, Amsterdam Historical Museum, Amsterdam……………...56
30. Nicolaes Eliasz Pickenoy, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Johan Fonteijn, c.1625-26,
(fragment), oil on canvas, 97.5 x 192 cm, Amsterdam Historical Museum, Amsterdam……….56
31. Albrecht Dürer, The Descent from the Cross, 1507, engraving, 11.5 x 7.1 cm, Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York………………………………………………….…………………...61
32. Raphael, The Entombment of Christ, 1507, oil on panel, 184 x 176 cm, Borghese Gallery,
Rome……………………………………………………………………………………………..61
33. Caravaggio, The Entombment of Christ, c.1602-03, oil on canvas, 300 x 203 cm, Pinacoteca
Vaticana, Vatican City…………………………………………………………………………..63
34. Michelangelo, Pietà, c.1498-9, marble, 174 x 195 cm, St. Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...63
35. Rembrandt, Detail of Christ on the Cross, 1631, oil on canvas on panel, 99.9 x 72.6 cm,
Parish Church, Le Mas d’Agenais, France………………………………………………………68
36. Rembrandt, Self-Portrait Open-Mouthed, as if Shouting, 1630, etching, 8.1 x 7.2 cm,
Rijksprentenkabinet, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam………………………………………………..68
37. Rembrandt, The Raising of the Cross, c.1633, oil on canvas, 95.7 x 72.2 cm, Alte Pinakothek,
Munich…………………………………………………………………………………………..68
38. Rembrandt, The Descent from the Cross, c.1633, oil on panel, 89.5 x 65 cm, Alte Pinakothek,
Munich…………………………………………………………………………………………..69
39. Rembrandt with Jan Gillisz van Vliet, The Descent from the Cross, 1633, etching,
53 x 41 cm, Teylers Museum, Haarlem…………………………………………………………70
40. Rembrandt, The Sacrifice of Isaac, 1635, oil on canvas, 193.5 x 132.8 cm, Hermitage,
St. Petersburg…………………………………………………………………………………….76
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41. Rembrandt, Self-Portrait with Dead Bittern, 1639, oil on panel, 120.7 x 88.3 cm, Staatliche
Kunstammlungen, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden……………………………………...80
42. Lucas van Leyden, Youth with Plumed Cap and Skull, c.1519, engraving, 18.4 x 14.4 cm,
Rijksprentenkabinet, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam………………………………………………..82
43. Frans Hals, Young Man Holding a Skull (Vanitas), 1626-28, oil on canvas, 92.2 x 80.8 cm
National Gallery of Art, London…………………………………………………......................82
44. Rembrandt, Self-Portrait with Plumed Beret, 1629, oil on panel, 89.5 x 73.5 cm,
Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston……………………………………………………..82
45. Willem van Aelst, Still Life of Dead Birds and Hunting Gear, 1664, oil on canvas,
68 x 54 cm, National Museum, Stockholm……………………………………………………..84
46. Rembrandt, Child with Dead Peacocks, c.1639, oil on canvas, 145 x 135.5 cm, Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam………………………………………………………………………………………84
47. Rembrandt, Slaughtered Ox, c.1639, oil on panel, 73.5 x 51.5 cm, Glasgow Art Gallery,
Glasgow………………………………………………………………………………………….88
48. Rembrandt, Slaughtered Ox, 1655, oil on panel, 94 x 67cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...89
49. Pieter Aertsen, Butcher Shop, 1551, oil on panel, 123.3 x 150 cm, Uppsala University
Collection, Uppsala……………………………………………………………………………...92
50. Martin van Heemskerck (designer) and Philipp Galle (engraver), Slaughter of the Fatted
Calf, Parable of the Prodigal Son, engraving, 1562………………………………………….....92
51. Marten van Cleve, The Slaughtered Ox, 1566, oil on panel, 68 x 53.5 cm, Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna…………………………………………………………………………………94
52. Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Prudence (from The Seven Virtues), 1559, drawing on paper,
22.4 x 30 cm, Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels……………………………………….94
53. Abraham van den Hecke, The Flayed Ox, seventeenth century, oil on canvas, 114 x 98 cm,
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam………………………………………………………………………95
54. David Teniers, Interior with Slaughtered Ox, 1642, oil on panel, 69 x 98 cm, Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston……………………………………………………………………………………...95
55. Rembrandt, Interior with Slaughtered Ox, c.1655, drawing, 13.4 x 17.9 cm,
Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen, Berlin…………………………………………………95
56. Matthias Grünewald The Crucifixion, 1515, panel from the Isenheim altarpiece,
oil on panel, 269 x 307 cm, Musee d'Unterlinden, Colmar…………………………………….101
57. Rembrandt, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Joan Deyman, 1656, oil on canvas, 100 x 134cm
(fragment), originally c. 200 x 275 cm, Amsterdam Historical Museum, Amsterdam.……….104
58. Rembrandt, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Joan Deyman in its Proposed Frame, c.1656,
sketch, 11 x 13.3 cm, Amsterdam Historical Museum, Amsterdam…………………………...104
59. Engraving of a brain dissection from Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica libri
septem, Joannes Oporinus, Basel, 1543………………………………………………………...115
60. Paolo Veronese, frontispiece from Realdo Colombo, De re anatomica libri XV,
Nicolai Beuilacquæ, Venice, 1559……………………………………………………………..119
61. Andrea Mantegna, Lamentation over the Dead Christ, c.1480-90, tempera on canvas,
80 x 68 cm, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan………………………………………………………..124
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62. Orazio Borgianni, Lamentation over the Dead Christ, c.1615, etching, 23.5 x 22.2 cm,
Rijksprentenkabinet, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam………………………………………………126
63. Rembrandt, Lucretia, 1664, oil on canvas, 120 x 101 cm, National Gallery of Art,
Washington……………………………………………………………………………………..133
64. Rembrandt, Lucretia, 1666, oil on canvas, 105.1 x 92.3 cm, Minneapolis Institute of Arts,
Minneapolis…………………………………………………………………………………….134
65. Titian, Tarquin and Lucretia, c.1570, oil on canvas, 114 x 100 cm, Gemäldegalerie der
Akademie der Bildenden Künste, Vienna.……………………………………………………..136
66. Marcantonio Raimondi after Raphael, Death of Lucretia, c.1511-1512, engraving,
21.7 x 13.3 cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston………………………………………………...136
67. Lucas Cranach the Elder, Lucretia, 1532, oil on panel, 37.5 x 24.5 cm, Gemäldegalerie der
Akademie der Bildenden Künste, Vienna……………………………………………………...137
68. Giampietro Rizzi, Suicide of Lucretia, early sixteenth century, oil on panel, 70.5 x 72.4 cm,
Elvehjem Museum of Art, University of Wisconsin, Madison………………………………...137
69. Panchromatic photograph of Rembrandt’s Minneapolis Lucretia featured in fig. 64, taken
23 Nov 1955, before Richard Buck’s cleaning (image courtesy of the ICA)………………….140
70. Panchromatic photograph of Rembrandt’s Minneapolis Lucretia featured in fig. 64, taken
2 April 1956, after Richard Buck’s cleaning (image courtesy of the ICA)……………………141
71. Panchromatic photograph of Rembrandt’s Minneapolis Lucretia featured in fig. 64, taken
2 April 1956, after Richard Buck’s cleaning (image courtesy of the ICA)……………………142
72. Caravaggio, David with the Head of Goliath, c.1609-10, oil on canvas, 125 x 101 cm,
Borghese Gallery, Rome……………………………………………………………………….143
73. Rembrandt, A Woman Hanging on a Gibbet, 1664, drawing, 17.2 x 9 cm, Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York……………………………………………………………………..152
74. Rembrandt, A Woman Hanging on a Gibbet, 1664, drawing, 15.8 x 8.1 cm, Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York……………………………………………………………………..152
75. Anthonie van Borssum, Execution in the Volwyck near Amsterdam, 1664, watercolour,
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam……………………………………………………………………..152
76. Rembrandt Studio, The Death of Lucretia, early 1640s, drawing, Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin
………………………………………………………………………………………………….153
77. Self-demonstrating female from Jacopo Berengario da Carpi, Isagogae breves, perlucidae
ac uberrimae, in anatomiam humani corporis, Benedictus Hector, Bologna, 1523…………...158
78. Self-demonstrating female from Jacopo Berengario da Carpi, Isagogae breves, perlucidae
ac uberrimae, in anatomiam humani corporis, Benedictus Hector, Bologna, 1523…………...158
79. Engraving of a flayed man holding a dagger and his skin from Valverde featured in fig. 7
and one of the engravings of flayed musclemen from Vesalius featured in fig. 24……………162
80. Detail of Dolendo’s engraving of the Leiden anatomy theatre featured in fig. 1, showing
two men studying a flayed skin………………………………………………………………...162
81. Anonymous painting of Our Lady of Sorrows
………………………………………………………………………………………………….167
82. Titian, Detail of The Assumption of the Virgin, c.1516, oil on canvas, 690 x 360 cm,
Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice………………………………………………………...167
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