Recent research in late-antique urbanism

122 Pages·2001·54.869 MB·English

by  Luke Lavan, William Bowden

JOURNAL OF
RECENT RESEARCH
ROMAN
IN LAT E-ANTIQUE
ARCHAEOLOGY
URBANISM
SUPPLEMENTARY SERIES NUMBER 42
edited by
Luke Lavan
General editors of this volume:
S. Herson and J. H. Humphrey
with contributions by
W. Bowden, Averil Cameron, N. J. Christie, S. A. Kingsley, 0. Karagiorgou,
L. Lavan, A. Lewin, J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, G. Poccardi, S. Provost,
F. K. Trombley, B. Ward-Perkins, M. Whittow and J.-B. Yon
Portsmouth, Rhode Island
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
2001
Table of contents
Preface and Acknowledgements 7
The late-antique city: a bibliographic essay 9
L. Lavan
1. POLITICAL LIFE
Urban public building from Constantine to Julian: the epigraphic evidence 27
A. Lewin
2. URBAN TOPOGRAPHY
The praetoria of civil governors in late antiquity 39
L. Lavan
A new urban elite? Church builders and church building in late-antique Epirus 57
W. Bowden
'Decline' in the ports of Palestine in late antiquity 69
S. A. Kingsley
Fortifications and urbanism in late antiquity: Thessaloniki and other eastern cities
]. Crow
War and order: urban remodelling and defensive strategy in Late Roman Italy 106
N. J. Christie
City walls and urban area in late-antique Macedonia: the case of Philippi 123
S. Provost
3. REGIONAL STUDIES
Recent research on the late-antique city in Asia Minor: the second half of the 6th-c. revisited 137
M. Whittow
a
L'ile d'A ntioche la fin de l' antiquite: histoire et probleme de topographie urbaine 155
G. Poccardi
Evergetism and urbanism in Palmyra 173
J.-B. Yon
Demetrias and Thebes: the fortunes and misfortunes of two Thessalian port cities 182
0. Karagiorgou
4. CITY AND HINTERLAND
All dates in this volume are AD. unless otherwise indicated Town and territorium in Late Roman Anatolia (late 5th to early 7th c.) 217
F. R. Trombley
5. RETROSPECTIVE ON LATE ANTIQUITY
ISBN 1-887829-42-3
ISSN 1063-4304 (for the supplementary series)
The uses and abuses of the concept of 'decline' in later Roman history, 233
Copyright© 2001 Journal of Roman Archaeology® L.L.C.
or Was Gibbon politically incorrect?
Printed by Thomson-Shore, Dexter, Michigan J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz
Responses A. Cameron, 238
This and other supplements to the Journal ofR oman Ard111eologi;® may be ordered from: B. Ward-Perkins,
JRA®, 95 Peleg Road, Portsmouth, RI 02871, U.S.A. M. Whittow
Telephone (USA) 401 683 1955 telefax (USA) 401 683 1975 e-mail: [email protected] L. Lavan
Web site: www.JoumalofRomanArch.com
Preface and acknowledgements
Luke Lavan
Research into the late-antique city is flourishing. At long-established urban excavations,
considerable resources are now being re-directed towards understanding the stratigraphy and
epigraphy of the 4th to 7th c. New excavations, especially in Israel and Jordan, often conducted
on a very large scale, are greatly extending our knowledge of urban topography. Major
monographs have appeared in recent years devoted to re-constructing late-antique urban
history.1 Work of this kind makes late-antique archaeology finally look respectable alongside
that of the early Imperial period.
This volume is the product of a series of conferences held in Nottingham, Birmingham and
Oxford between 1997 and 1999, entitled 'Recent research in late-antique urbanism'. The idea of
the series was to bring together established and emerging scholars in both ancient history and
archaeology from Britain, France and Italy to consider a variety of broad themes relevant to
the study of the late-antique city, both within individual regions and across the empire as a
whole.
The topics contained in this collection are fairly representative of current research into late
antique urbanism. If any subject is seriously underplayed, it is the importance of Christianiza
tion to the political and monumental development of the city; 'secular' topography is given
greater prominence, with articles on praetoria and fortifications. This slant is not intended to
minimise the importance of Christianization but merely to highlight some areas that have
been neglected. The single paper that deals specifically with church construction suggests that
there are many interesting ways to consider churches that have not yet been attempted. As
churches make up so much of our knowledge of late-antique urbanism, approaches of this kind
are surely long overdue, even if the specific conclusions drawn by W. Bowden are, as he admits,
controversial.
Regional studies have long provided the basis for examinations of the late-antique city.
Urban development varies so greatly between many parts of the empire that this genre will
probably continue to be the foundation for understanding most, though not all, of the changes of
the period. 0. Karagiorgou's work fills an important gap in the Balkans and will be welcome to
scholars who find the bibliography of this area daunting. M. Whittow's paper is a reminder
that such regional studies need to be kept up-to-date in light of new discoveries; he provides a
much-needed review of urban development in W Asia Minor, a region which C. Foss used 25
years ago to bring archaeology into discussion of the late-antique city.
The greatest amount of current research in the subject relates to topography, probably as a
result of the abundance of archaeological evidence that is appearing every year and which
encourages this approach. Here, W. Bowden, N. Christie, J. Crow, S. Kingsley and I address
individual topographical themes, whilst S. Provost provides a detailed case study on the
walls of Philippi in Macedonia. Much topographical work, however, does transcend studies of
individual monument types. G. Poccardi looks at the urban development of the important
imperial city of Antioch, whilst J.-B. Yon describes the creation of the cultural koine that had
been established between many cities of the Roman empire by the beginning of late antiquity.
The considerable endeavours of A. H. M. Jones, J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, C. Lepelley and A.
Lewin leave one feeling that few questions remain to be addressed in relation to urban political
For example: A. Frantz, The Athenian Agora, vol. 24: Late antiquity, A.O. 267-700 (Princeton 1988); C.
Roueche, Aphrodisias in late antiquity (London 1989); A. Poulter, Nicopolis ad Istrum: a Roman, Late
Roman and Byzantine city (London 1995); and F. A. Bauer, Stadt, Platz und Denkmal in der Spiitantike.
Untersuchungen zur Ausstattung des offentlichen Raums in den spiitantiken Stiidten Rom, Konstantinopel
zmd Ephesos (Mainz c.1996).
Preface and acknowledgements
8
life. However, both Lewin and F. R. Trombley demonstrate that the epigraphy of the 3rd to The late-antique city: a bibliographic essay
6th c. is still a good source for new research and, indeed, may provide a more reliable guide to
the reality of urban organisation than generalisations derived from the law codes.
Luke Lavan
This volume ends with a paper by Liebeschuetz, on the use of the concept of 'decline' in late
J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz's forthcoming book The decline and Jail of the Roman city, will
antiquity, which was one the highlights of the conference series. It is hoped that its debate
cover the development of urban communities across the late-antique world between the 5th and
here will provide a spark to encourage wider discussion on what is surely still the 'big question'
7th c. It will refer to much of the most recent and significant literature that has been produced
for late antiquity, as well as being one of the most abused historiographical constructs of
on the later city, especially for the later development of city politics. However, as scholarly
Western scholarship.
priorities inevitably differ, the bibliography presented here should also help to orientate the
I would like to thank all contributors to both this volume and the seminars as well as to all newcomer, and further references can be obtained from most of the works cited.
those who helped organise and subsidise the seminar series. B. Ward-Perkins was co-organiser
for both Oxford sessions and has provided considerable editorial assistance throughout. A. General and regional syntheses
Dunn acted as partner for the Birmingham session, where J. Haldon also gave much support.
Since the publication in 1955 of P. Petit's Libanius et la vie municipale a Antioche, the late
The Craven Fund Committee, the Oxford Byzantine Studies Committee, and the Modern
antique city has received a great deal of attention, for both its archaeology and history.1 ~ e
History Faculty of Oxford University provided generous grants towards the cost of the last
first really substantial synthesis on late-antique urbanism was provided by A. H. M. Jones m
session. The Universities of Birmingham and Nottingham and Trinity College, Oxford, also
chapt. 19, "The cities", of his Later Roman Empire (1964). Much of this is still es~en!ial
contributed to the running expenses of the series. For advice and encouragement, thanks go to A.
reading, though in many areas of the empire archaeology has revealed unexpected vitality,
Poulter, J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz and J. W. Rich, and to the latter for valuable suggestions on
which Jones had not anticipated.2 D. Claude's book on the 6th-c. city, Die byzantinische Stadt
publication. M. Lavan, C. Lavan, B. Gruber, A. Jones and C. des Courtils also assisted in
important ways. Finally, my thanks especially to J. H. Humphrey for agreeing to publish these (1969), provided a full-length treatment of political aspects of the city and an unprecedented
synthesis of the topographical elements of urban centres known at that time.3 In 1972
papers and for his patience.
Liebeschuetz's Antioch, an administrative study of an exceptionally well-documented eastern
University of Nottingham community, provided a model of how historical research might be carried out into the later
city.4 Since Claude, few scholars have attempted comprehensive overviews. C. Mango has
provided a stimulating and vivid introduction to the character of urban life, from textual
sources, in his Daily life in early Byzantium.s B. Ward-Perkins integrates textual and
archaeological evidence in his chapter on "Cities" for the new Cambridge Ancient History vol.
13 for the 4th c., while Liebeschuetz does the same for the 5th and 6th c. in vol. 14.6 T. Potter
also provided a brief introduction to the subject in his Towns in late antiquity.7
In contrast to the paucity of overviews, a great number of regional syntheses are available.
For Britain, J. S. Wacher and B. C. Burnham have worked on two magisterial gazetteers of the
urban evidence, while A S. Esmonde-Cleary provides an accessible review of the evidence for
the 3rd to 5th c.8 The Topographie chretienne series, not yet complete, gives detailed listings of
1 P. Petit, Libanius et la vie nwnicipale a Antioche au IVe siec/e apres J.-C. (Paris 1955).
2 A. H. M. Jones, The later Roman empire 1 (London 1964) 712-66. See also his Cities of the eastern Roman
provinces (2nd edn., Oxford 1971) for the histories of individual cities and lists of cities by province in
the East Mediterranean.
3 D. Claude, Die byzantinische Stadt im 6. Jahr/nmdert (Munich 1969).
4 J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, Antioch. CihJ and imperial administration in ·tlze later Roman empire (Oxford
1972).
s C. Mango, "Daily life in early Byzantium," in Akten XVI Int. Byzantinistenkongress Wien 4-9 Oktober
1981 (= JbOstByz 31-32 [1981-82]) 337-53.
6 B. Ward-Perkins, "The cities," in Averil Cameron and P. Garnsey (edd.), CAH XIII. The late empire
(Cambridge 1998) 371-410; J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, "Administration and politics in the cities of the
fifth to the mid-seventh centuries," in Averil Cameron, B. Ward-Perkins and P. Garnsey (edd.), CAH XIV.
Late antiquity: empire and successors, A.D. 425-600 (Cambridge 2000); see also J. M. Spieser, "L'evolu
tion de la ville byzantine de l'epoque paleochretienne a l'iconoclasme," in J. Lefort and C. Morrisson
(edd.), Hammes et richesses dans /'empire byzantin I, IVe-Vlle siec/e (Paris 1989) 97-106.
7 T. W. Potter, Towns in late antiquity: lo/ Caesarea and its context (Sheffield 1995) 63-102.
s J. S. Wacher, The towns of Roman Britain (2nd edn., London 1997); B. C. Burnham and J. S. Wacher, The
small towns of Roman Britain (London 1990); A. S. Esmonde-Cleary, The ending of Roman Britain
(London 1989) 64-85, 144-57; R. Reece, "Town and country: the end of Roman Britain," World
Archaeology 12.1 (1980) 77-91; id., "The end of the city in Roman Britain," in J. Rich (ed.), The city in
late antiquity (London 1992) 136-44.
Luke Lavan The late-antique city: a bibliographic essay 11
10
antique and early mediaeval urbanism in Sardinia.18 For the Danube, A. Poulter's. "Use and
literary sources and some archaeological evidence for the provinces of Germany and Gaul.9 The
abuse of urbanism" is a detailed and stimulating piece, whilst N. Christie has considered the
collaborative work Die Franken includes brief summaries of the urban development of some
Pannonian material in a different context. The article of N. Duval and V. Popovic remains
urban centres in this region.10 J. K. Knight has produced the most recent synthetic work for Gaul
useful for individual city profiles in northern Illyricum.19 Albania is currently receiving much
that touches on the late-antique city but it is brief;11 the works of E. Frezouls and P.-A. Fevrier
attention; here the synthetic works of E. Chrysos and H. Saradi have usefully filled a gap. W.
are therefore still worth consulting.12 The Palatium und Civitas 'Profantopographie' of Bruhl
covers Gaul and Germany.13 Useful regional works do exist for the Moselle and SW Gaul, Bowden's thesis covers the same territory.20 K. Hattersley-Smith has integrated literary and
archaeological sources for the cities of Byzantine Macedonia, with the bulk of her work
though P.-A. Fevrier's work on Provence of 1964 is now quite old.14 A great deal of synthetic
focusing on late antiquity. A. Dunn has considered the decline of classical_ urban centres_and the
literature has been written for Spain, covering both urban developments in the peninsula as a
whole and individual districts. The best introduction is B. Galan's La ciutat hispano-romana. growth of castra.21 0. Karagiogou's work in this volume helps to bnng Thessaly into the
discussion. J.-M. Spieser has written an introductory article on Greece, A. Avrarnea has covered
This provides considerable up-to-date bibliography on individual cities, as well as an
the Peloponnese, and T. E. Gregory has provided comparative consideration of some aspects of
unparalleled coverage of urban history, by region.15 For Germany, Noricum and Raetia one has
late-antique urban development in Achaea and more widely in the Balkans.22
to work from general syntheses.16
In Asia Minor most urban excavation has been concentrated around the western and southern
Italy has received some of the most comprehensive regional syntheses, with B. Ward
coasts and this bias has been reflected in synthetic writing. C. Foss has produced a number of
Perkins's From late antiquity to the early Middle ages, G. P. Brogiolo's La citta nell'alto
overviews which have had considerable impact on the way scholars have viewed the urban
medioevo italiano, and E. Zanini's Le Jtalie bizantine.17 An entire volume is dedicated to late-
development of the whole of the eastern Mediterranean. "Archaeology and the twenty cities of
Byzantine Asia" covers the west coast; other articles cover Lycia and Pamphylia.23 Generally
9 N. Gauthier, N. Duval et al. (edd.), Topographie clzretienne des cites de la Ga11le des origines au mi/ie11 d11 Foss's articles can be used as comprehensive indices of published material up to their date of
Vllle siecle (Paris 1986-).
10 Die Franken: Wegbereiten E11ropas vor 1500 fa/1re11, Konig C/ilodowig 1111d seine Erben Bd. 1 {Mainz
1996). 1 s G. Spanu (ed.), Material/ per 1111a topografia urbana, 'status quaestionis' e ,wove acquisizioni (Oristano
11 J. K. Knight, The end of a11tiq11ity: archaeology, society and religion AD 235-700 (Stroud 1999) 26-37, 63- 1995).
84. 19 A. Poulter, "The use and abuse of urbanism in the Danubian provinces in the later Roman empire," in
12 E. Frezouls, Les villes antiques de la France II (Strasbourg 1988); P.-A. Fevrier (ed.), Histoire de la France Rich (supra n.8) 99-135; see also V. Velkov, Cities in Thrace and Dacia in late antiquity (Amsterdam
11rbaine I: la ville antique des origines a11 IXe siecle (Paris 1980); see also P. Gros (dir.), Villes et 1977) and A. Barnea, "Evolution urbaine en Scythie Mineure a l'epoque du Bas-empire," in X. Dupre
campagnes en Ga1tle romaine (Paris 1998) for background. Raventos (dir.), La ciudad en el mundo romano (Tarragona 1994); N. Christie, "The survival of Roman
13 C.-R. Bruh!, Palati11m und civitas, St11dien wr Profa11topographie spiita11tiker Civitates I, Gallien (Cologne settlement along the middle Danube: Pannonia from the fourth to the tenth century A.O.," OJA 11.3
1975); II, Belgica I, beide Germanien 1111d Raetia II (Cologne 1990). (1992) 317-34; N. Duval and V. Popovit, "Urbanisme et topographie chretienne clans les provinces
14 A. Marcone, "Ausonio e le citta della Mosella," in W. Eck and H. Galsterer (edd.), Die Stadt in septentrionales de l'Illyricum," in Actes Xe Congres Jnt. Arch. Chret. 1 (Vatican City 1984) 541-79; see
Oberitalien und in den nordwestlichen Provi11ze11 des r/Jmischen Reic/1es (Mainz 1991) 201-16; L. also now C. Preschlenov, "Die antike Stadt an der bulgarischen Schwarzmeerki.iste," and V. Ointchev,
Maurin (dir.), Villes et agglomerations urbaines antiques d11 sud-ouest de la Gartle (Aquitania Suppl. 6, "The definitions of urban area in the late-antique dioceses of Thracia and Dacia: the overestimated
1992); L. Maurin and J.-M. Pailler (dir.), La civilisation 11rbaine de l'A11tiq11ite ta'rdive dn11s le s11d-011est centers," both in Archaeologia Bulgarica 4.2 (2000).
de la Gaule (Aquitania 14, 1996); P.-A. Fevrier, Le developpement 11rbai11 en Provence de /'epoq11e romaine 20 E. Chrysos, "Early Byzantine period (fourth-sixth centuries)," in M. B. Sakellariou (ed.), £pints, 4000
i1 la fin du XIVe siecle (Paris 1964). years of Greek history and civilization (Athens 1997) 148-65; H. Saradi, "Aspects of early Byzantine
1s M. Bendala Galan (ed.), La ciutat hispano-romana (XIV Congr~s Int. d'Arqueologia Classica; Barcelona urbanism in Albania," in N. Oikonomides (ed.), Medieval Albanians (forthcoming); H. Saradi, "Late
1993); see also F. J. Garda de Castro, Sociedad y poblamiento en la Hispania de/ siglo lV d.C. (Valladolid cities in Albania," in Proc. Int. Symposium on the Medieval Albanians 1996 (Athens forthcoming); W.
1995) 201-10; S. Gutierrez Lloret, LA Cora de T11dmir de la antigiiedad tardia al mundo isltimico (Coll. Bowden, Town and country in late antique Epirus Vet11s (diss. Univ. of East Anglia 2000) and his
Casa de Velazquez 57, 1996) 219-305; J. Ma Gurt I Esparraguera, G. Ripoll Lopez and C. Godoy "Urban transformation in early Byzantine Epirus: the example of Butrint," in G. De Boe and F.
Fernandez, "Topografia de la antiguedad tardia hispanica. Reflexi6nes para una propuesta de trabajo," Verhaeghe (edd.), Medieval Europe Bnigge 1997, vol. 3. Trade and exchange (Zellik 1997) 155-69.
AnTard 2 (1994) 161-80. 21 K. Hattersley-Smith, Byzantine public architecture between the 4th and 11th c. AD, with special reference
16 H.-G. Horn (ed.), Die Romer in Nordrlrein-Westfalen (Stuttgart 1987); H. Ci.ippers, Die Romer i11 to the towns of Byzantine Macedonia (Thessalonica 1996); J. R. Wiseman, "The city in Macedonia
Rlreinland-Pfalz (Stuttgart 1990); K. Dietz and T. Fischer, Die Romer in Rege11sburg (Regensburg 1996); Secunda," in Villes et peuplement dans /'Illyricum protobyzantin (CollEFR 1984) 289-313; A. Dunn,
Die Romer in Schwaben (Munich 1985); Die Romer an Dona11 1111d Iller: Ne11e Forsc/wngen und F1111de "The transition from polis to kastron in the Balkans II-VI cents.: general and regional perspectives,"
(Sigmaringen 1996); Ph. Filtzinger, D. Planck and B. Cammerer, Die Rome·r in Baden-Wiirttemberg BMGS 18 (1994) 60-80; id., "From polls to kastron in southern Macedonia ... ," in Castrum 5 (CollEFR
(Stuttgart 1986); W. Czysz, K. Dietz, T. Fischer and H.-J. Kellner, Die Romer in Bayem (Munich 1996); 105, 1999) 399-413.
W. Drack und R. Fellman (edd.), Die Romer in der Sc/1weiz (Stuttgart 1988) and R. Fellmann, La Suisse 22 J. M. Spieser, "La ville en Grke du Ille au VIie siede" in Villes et peuplement (supra n.21) 315-40; A.
gallo-romai11e: cinq siecles d'ltistoire (Lausanne 1992); H. Woolf, "Die Kontinuitat stadtischen Lebens in Avramea, Le Peloponnese du IVe au VIlle siecle. Changements et persistances (Paris 1997); T. E. Gregory,
den nordlichen Grenzprovinzen des romisches Reiches und das Ende der Antike," in Eck and Galsterer "Fortification and urban design in early Byzantine Greece," in R. L. Holhfelder (ed.), City, town and
(supra n.14) 287-318; C. Bridger and K.-J. Gilles (edd.), Spiitromisches Befestigungsanlagen in den Rhein- countryside in the early Byzantine era (Boulder, CO 1982); id., "Cities and social evolution in Roman
1111d Dona11provi11zen (BAR S702, Oxford 1998). G. Alfoldy, Noricum (London 1974), is still useful. and Byzantine south-east Europe," in J. Bintliff (ed.), European social evolution (Bradford 1984) 267-76;
17 B. Ward-Perkins, From classical antiquity to the early middle ages (Oxford 1984); G. P. Brogiolo and J. see also B. Aleksova, "Ancient cities and towns: large early-Christian ecclesiastical centres in
Gelichi, LA cittii nell'alto medioevo Italiano: archeologia e storia (Rome 1998); E. Zanini, Le Italie bizantine. Macedonia," ApxaioA.oy{a 64 (1997) 19-28; N. Moutsopoulos, "The early Byzantine and middle
Territorio, insediamenti ed economia nella provincia Bizantina d'//alia (VI-VI!l seco/o) (Bari 1998) also Byzantine city," Apxarotoy(a 64 (1997) 29-58.
has a very substantial section on cities; see also older syntheses: F. Rebecdti, "Le citta dell'Italia 23 C. Foss, "Archaeology and the twenty cities of Byzantine Asia," AJA 81 (1977) 141-83; id., "The Lycian
annonaria," in A. Schiavone (ed.), Starla di Roma 3.2: L'etil tardoantica (Turin 1993) 199-227; C. coast in the Byzantine age," DOP 48 (1994) 1-198; id., "The cities of Pamphylia in the Byzantine age,"
Pavolini, "Le citta dell'ltalia suburbicaria," ibid. 177-98. in id., Cities, fortresses and villages of Byzantine Asia Minor (Aldershot 1996).
12 Luke Lavan The late-antique city: a bibliographic essay 13
publication. Opinions are divided over Foss's interpretation of the prosperity of urban centres produced. The appendix at the end of this chapter provides a list of most of these site summar
in the province of Asia in late antiquity, and new interpretations have been developed, partly ies and syntheses, again with the aim of providing a starting point for research, rather than a
based on new information, by M. Whittow in this volume, and by Liebeschuetz.2 4 comprehensive bibliography. There are huge numbers of other sites that have seen substantial
Usefully, Foss has recently extended his work into northern Syria.25 A wider survey of both excavation, particularly in the Levant and North Africa. However, the cities listed below
have been treated in some of the more accessible publications and they can quickly convey a
Syria and Arabia is provided by H. Kennedy's "The last century of Byzantine Syria", but the
vivid impression of the variety of late-antique urban life. Here in the text, only major imperial
thesis of this work, that the 6th c. saw an economic downturn for most of the region, is chal
residences will be covered, though cities like Sirmium, Thessalonica and Aries of course also
lenged by, amongst others, the research of M. M. Mango on patronage in the Diocese of Oriens.26
served this function for shorter periods.
Excavations of late-antique urban sites in Israel and Jordan are currently more numerous and
extensive than anywhere else in Mediterranean lands. Fortunately, there have been several Especially since R. Krautheimer's Rome: portrait of a city, Rome has seen much research on
recent syntheses that cover this area. A. Walmsley covers both countries, whilst D. Sperber the late-antique period.31 A. Fraschetti covers the Christianisation of the city, whilst vol
concentrates on Palestine. Cl. Dauphin's La Palestine Byzantine: peuplements et populations umes edited by P. Delogu and W. Harris provide a good entry into more recent bibliography
also covers some urban sites.27 Egypt has seen little archaeological work on later Roman cities, since the survey articles of Storia di Roma.32 For individual monuments see the Lexicon
though its papyrus documentation has allowed detailed historical studies; A. K. Bowman's topographicum urbis Romae.33 The imperial cities of Trier,34 Ravenna,35 Milan36 and Antioch37
Town councils of Roman Egypt reaches to the 4th c. and R. S. Bagnall's Egypt in late antiquity have attracted considerable attention, with the two Italian cities having seen most work. On
has a chapter on cities. Public buildings can be studied from the work of A. Lukaszewicz.28 Constantinople, the best overview of urban development has been provided by C. Mango,
whilst R. Janin's monograph is fundamental for topographical issues, as is G. Dagron's work for
Relatively speaking, Cyrenaica has seen more urban excavation than almost any other
political organisation. Recently, a number of collected studies have appeared.38 R. Krauthei
region of the empire; almost all its cities have seen major clearance projects and systematic
mer's Three Christian capitals considers the imperial cities of Milan, Ravenna and Constan
open-area excavations. D. Roques has provided a synthesis of the urban evidence as part of his
tinople in comparative perspective, whilst Storia di Roma contains several essays on all ithese
Synesios de Cyrene et la Cyrenai'que du Bas-Empire. From this he reconstructs considerable
and other great late-antique centres.39 On the issue of supplying cities of this class with public
dynamism for the province in the age of his subject Synesius, who was bishop of Ptolemais in
food subsidies, see J. Durliat's De la ville antique it la ville byzantine.40
the early 5th c .. His treatment of the archaeological evidence, however, is unconventional.29
C. Lepelley's Afrique covers principally epigraphic but also some archaeological work for There seems generally to have been a disproportionate amount of work on cities that were
Africa, including Tripolitania. However, the huge quantity of archaeological evidence for the provincial capitals. Bibliography for a large number of cities is listed in the Appendix. Intro
diocese has not really been dealt with systematically, apart from T. Potter's brief ductory bibliography for some 'ordinary' cities that have received comparable attention is
consideration in Towns in late antiquity: fol Caesarea and its context.3 0 listed in the second part of the Appendix. Some provincial capitals became seats of the courts
of barbarian kings in the 5th and 6th c., though this status did not respect earlier distinctions.
Individual sites G. Ripoll and others have recently investigated royal capitals in Spain and elsewhere.41
The main bulk of literature on late-antique urban topics relates neither to syntheses by
region or topic, but to individual sites. In the absence of wider research ag~ndas, this is disap 31 R. Krautheimer, Rome, profile of a city (Princeton 1980); B. Lan~on, Rome dans l'antiquite tardive 312-
pointing. Whilst vast sums of money are spent elucidating local topographical problems by 604 apres J.-C. (Paris 1995).
excavation, comparatively little synthetic research is undertaken to draw together wider 32 A. Fraschetti, La conversione da Roma pagana a Roma cristiana (Rome 1999); W. Harris (ed.), The
themes. However, for most sites where substantial resources have been expended, a summary of transformations of Vrbs Roma in late antiquity (JRA Suppl. 33, 1999); Schiavone (supra n.17); also P.
the topographical development and perhaps the political history of the city has been Delogu (ed.), Roma medievale. Aggiornamenti (Florence 1998).
33 E. M. Steinby (ed.), LTUR (1993-2000).
34 Trier, Kaiserresidenz und Bischofssitz (2nd edn., Mainz 1984).
24 J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, The decline and fall of the Roman city (forthcoming). 35 A. Carile (ed.), Storia di Ravenna 2.1. Dall'eta bizantina a/l'etil ottoniana (Venice 1991); F. W. Deichmann,
25 C. Foss, "Syria in transition A.D. 550-750: an archaeological approach," DOP 52 (1998) 189-269. Ravenna: Hauptstadt des spiitantiken Abendlandes 1-3 (Stuttgart 1958-89).
26 H. Kennedy, "The last century of Byzantine Syria," ByzForsch 10 (1985) 141-83; M. M. Mango, Artistic 36 G. Sena Chiesa and E. A. Arslan (edd.), Felix temporis reparatio (Atti convegno, Milan 1992); Milano
patronage in the Roman diocese of Oriens 313-641 AD (Oxford forthcoming). For Antioch, Apamaea, capitale dell'impero romano, 286-402 d.C. (exh. cat. Milan 1990); C. Bertelli and H. Brandenburg (ed.), II
Epiphania, and Bostra see Foss (supra n.25). millennia ambrosiano: Milano (Milan 1987).
27 A. Walmsley, "Byzantine Palestine and Arabia: urban prosperity in late antiquity," in N. Christie and 37 Liebeschuetz (supra n.4); G. Downey, A history of Antioch in Syria from Seleucus to the Arab conquest
S. T. Loseby (edd.), Towns in transition (Aldershot 1996) 126-58; D. Sperber, The city in Roman Palestine (Princeton 1961). See also Foss (supra n.25) 191-97.
(Oxford 1998); C. Dauphin, La Palestine byzantine: peuplements et populations (BAR S726, Oxford 38 C. Mango, Le developpement urbain de Constantinople (IV-VII siecles) (2nd edn., Paris 1990). R. Janin,
1998). Constantinople byzantine (2nd edn., Paris 1964); W. Millier-Wiener, Bildlexikon zur Topographie
28 A. K. Bowman, The town co11ncils of Roman Egypt (Toronto 1971); see also id., "Urbanisation in Roman Istanbuls (Tiibingen 1977); G. Dagron, Constantinople: naissance d'une capitale. Constantinople et ses
Egypt," in E. Fentress (ed.), Romanization and the city (JRA Suppl. 38, 1999) 173-88; R. S. Bagnall, Egypt institutions (Paris 1974); C. Mango and G. Dagron (edd.), Constantinople and its hinterland (Aldershot
in late antiquity (Princeton 1993) 45-109; A. Lukaszewicz, Les edifices publics dans /es villes de 1994); C. Mango, Studies on Constantinople (Aldershot 1993); B. Ward-Perkins, "Constantinople: a city
l'Egypte romaine (Warsaw 1986). and its ideological territory," in G. P. Brogiolo, N. Gauthier and N. Christie (edd.), Towns and their
29 D. Roques, Synesios de Cyrene et la Cyrenai"que du Bas-Empire (Paris 1987); see also J. A. Lloyd, "The territories between late antiquity and the early middle ages (Leiden 2000) 325-45.
cities of Cyrenaica in the third century AD," in Giornata Lincea sul/a archeologia cirenaica (Atti dei 39 R. Krautheimer, Three Christian capitals (Berkley 1983); Schiavone (supra n.17).
convegni Lincei 87, 1990) 42-53. 40 J. Durliat, De la ville antique il la ville byzantine. Les problemes des subsistances (CollEFR 136, 1990).
30 C. Lepelley, Les cites de l'Afrique romaine au Bas Empire (Paris 1979); Potter (supra n.7); see also Y. 41 G. Ripoll and J.M. Gurt (edd.), Sedes regiae (ann. 400-800) (Barcelona 2000).
Thebert, "L'evolution urbaine dans Jes provinces orientales de I'A frique romaine tardive" Opus 2
(1983) 99-132.
I
14 Luke Lavan The late-antique city: a bibliographic essay 15
Bibliographic research early Sth-c. Africa.48 Another problem is the absence of any good source for the details of urban
life throughout the 5th and early 6th c. For recent work on Procopius's De aedificiis, an
Compiling a bibliography for a late-antique city is a relatively easy task for most regions.
important but problematic source for 6th-c. urbanism, see the thematic volume of Antiquite
What follows here is not a thorough checklist, but rather an aid to assembling a good biblio
Tardive 8 (2000).
graphy rapidly. In Britain, J. Wacher's volumes provide good bibliographic coverage down to
their last revision dates; after them, the British and Irish Archaeological Bibliography Epigraphic evidence pertinent to the later city is much scarcer than for the early Imperial
should be used. The journal Britannia gives preliminary notices of excavations recently under period, except in Palestine and some surrounding areas where large numbers of Sth- and 6th-c.
taken. Topographie chretienne provides bibliography by site for cities in Gaul and some in mosaic inscriptions survive. There is therefore often a dearth of late-antique material in the
Germany. Excavations are reported in Gallia informations and in the "Bilan scientifique" innumerable epigraphic publications of the Roman empire. Surprisingly, no-one has assembled
produced by the Service Regional de l'A rcheologie for each region of France. The Journal of late-antique building inscriptions into a monograph for Britain, Spain and Gaul, where they
Roman Studies offers occasional review articles for sites in Gaul. La ciutat hispano-romana is are rare. B. Ward-Perkins's work on north and central Italy, which is well indexed, refers to a
also fairly comprehensive up to its date of publication.42 In Switzerland and Italy, it can be great number by place or topic.49 Poulter has considered all relevant inscriptions for the middle
difficult to avoid having to combine local syntheses with entries in the Princeton Encyclo and lower Danube that were known up to the time of his publication.50 C. Lepelley's great
paedia of Classical Sites and L'Annee philologique. Fasti Arcliaeologici and Notizie de/le monograph for Africa provides the actual texts of inscriptions for each city in the diocese, with
Scavi di Antichita are particularly useful for notices of excavation Lr1 Italy and adjacent comment and cross-references.51 A. Lewin has published a consolidated selection of most
regions, as is the Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica di Roma for Rome and Latium. For building inscriptions for 4th-c. Greece, Asia Minor and the Levant and plans to publish more
southern Austria see the Archiiologicher Atlas von Kiirnten.43 Many Austrian excavations are soon.52 L. Robert collected and commented on a fascinating set of honorific inscriptions relating
reported in the Jahreshefte des Osterreichischen Archiiologischen lnstituts in Wien. For the to governors, most of which come from urban contexts in Greece and Asia Minor. Foss is nearly
former Yugoslavia see the journal Starinar for recent excavations; the same function is fulfilled always exhaustive in publishing building inscriptions in his studies of particular cities in this
in Bulgaria by Archaeologica Bulgarica. In all the areas it covers the Tabula Imperii Byzan part of the empire. L. di Segni has published a list of building inscriptions for Palestine and
tini is a necessary starting point for bibliography.44 For Sicily, Greece and Asia Minor, the Arabia, with full references.53 For an exemplary urban monograph on late-antique inscriptions
Hellenic Society's Archaeological Reports provide excellent coverage. For Syria, the Oxford from a site exceptionally rich in epigraphy, see C. Roueche's Aphrodisias in late antiquity.54
Encyclopaedia of Archaeology in the Near East provides adequate initial bibliography on at The inscriptions of Caesarea Maritima, to appear early in 2001, will no doubt become a
least the major sites. The "Chroniques des fouilles" in the journal Syria has until recently collection of comparable importance.
provided lists of excavations. In Israel, the New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations
The concept of the city during late antiquity saw a gradual movement away from tradi
in the Holy Land is excellent for bibliography, with Excavations and Surveys in Israel
tional classical definitions and the growth of new Christian concepts;55 the detail of this
providing notices of current excavations.45 For Jordan it is critical to check the Zeitschrift des
process varied enormously, both chronologically and by region, with recognizably classical
Deutschen Piilastina-Vereins and the Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan,
conceptions remaining important in the 6th c.56 Jones and C. Mango have explored what it
which are usually full of fieldwork reports. For Cyrenaica, there are again the Hellenic
meant to be a city at this time and what the creation of cities entailed.57 Lepelley has looked
Society's Archaeological reports, and notices of new excavations appear in Libya Antiqua. For
at new African cities of the 4th c., whilst Mango has focused on foundations of the 6th.58
Africa, see recent survey articles by N. Duval and by D. J. Mattingly anp R. B. Hitchner, as
well as the annual Bibliographie analytique de l'Afrique antique. 46
48 T. A Kopecek, "The Cappadocian Fathers and civic patriotism," Church History 43 (1974) 293-303;
Literary sources and epigraphic evidence also of interest is C. Vogler, "L'administration imperiale dans la correspondance de Saint Basile et
Saint Gregoire de Naziance," in M. Christol et al. (edd.), Institutions, societe et vie politique dans
Literary sources pertinent to the late-antique city are discussed by A. Demandt in his /'empire romain au IVe siecle ap. J.-C. (CollEFR 159, 1992); for Augustine's Africa see Lepelley (supra
manual Die Spiitantike.47 He shows that outside Constantinople, Ravenna, Rome, Antioch and n.30) vol.l, esp. 293-303, 371-408.
Alexandria, very few cities are covered by literary sources in any detail. Even those are almost 49 Ward-Perkins (supra n.17). In general for the West see Inscriptions of the Christian Empire (PHI CD-
entirely provincial capitals, such as Ephesus, Ankara, Ptolemais, Edessa, Caesarea Maritima ROM #6 1991, 2nd edn. 1996) and Inscriptions of the Christian Kingdoms (PHI CD-ROM #7 1996).
and Carthage. Only occasionally do ecclesiastical writers such as Gregory of Nazianzus in 50 Poulter (supra n.19).
Cappadocia or Theodoret of Cyrrhus in Euphratensis give an idea of what life was like in 51 Lepelley (supra n.30) vol. 2.
ordinary cities, though Augustine provides some detail on small-town life in late 4th- and 52 List of inscriptions: A. Lewin, Studi sulla cittil imperiale romana nell'Oriente tardoantico (Como 1991)
117-28.
53 L. Robert, Hellenica 4. Epigrammes du Bas-Empire (Paris 1948) 60-89; Foss (supra nn. 23 and 25); L. Di
42 Bendala Galan (supra n.15). Segni, "Epigraphic documentation on building in the provinces of Palaestina and Arabia, 4th-7th c.," in
43 G. Picottini (ed.), Archiiologicher Atlas von Kiirnten (Klagenfurt 1989). J. Humphrey (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East 2 ORA Suppl. 31, 1999) 149-78.
44 For example, for Epirus: P. Soustal, Nikopolis und Kephallenia (Tabula Imperil Byzantini 3, Vienna 54 C. Roueche, Aphrodisias in late antiquity (London 1989).
1981). 55 E.g., P. Fuentesca, "L'idea polftica greco-romano y el cristianismo ,Polis o cosmopolis?," Atti Accad.
Romanistica Costantiniana 10 (1995) 159-85.
45 E. Stem, The new encyclopedia of archaeological excavations in the Holy Land (4 vols., Jerusalem 1993).
46 For Cyrenaica see also J. A. Lloyd, "Libya: research in archaeology, environment, history and society 56 C. Lepelley, "La survie de l'idee de la cite republicaine en Italie au debut du VIe siecle clans un edit
1969-1989," LibStud 20 (1989) 77-90. For Africa, see N. Duval, "Quinze ans de recherches d'A thalaric redige par Cassiodore (Variae, IX, 2)," in id. (ed.), La fin de la cite antique et le debut de la
cite medievale (Bari 1996) 71-83; id. (supra n}0); id., "Permanence de la cite classique et archaismes
archeologiques sur l'antiquite tardive en Afrique du Nord 1975-1993," REA 92 (1990) 349-87 and id.,
"Vingt ans ... ," REA 95 (1993) 585-639; D. J. Mattingly and R. B. Hitchner, "Roman Africa: an municipaux en Italie au Bas-Empire," in Christo! et al. (supra n.48) 353-71.
archaeological review," JRS 85 (1995) 165-213. 57 Jones (supra n.2) vol.1, 719-24; C. Mango, Byzantine architecture (London 1979), chapter on cities.
47 A. Demandt, Die spiitantike: Romische Geschichte von Diocletian bis Justinian, 284-565 n. Chr. (Munich 58 Mango ibid.; C. Lepelley, "La creation des cites nouvelles en Afrique au Bas-Empire: le cas de la ciivitas
1989) 399-413. Faustianensis," in Y. Le Bohec (ed.), L'Afrique, la Gaule, la religion il l'epoque rornaine (Coll. Latomus
16 Luke Lavan The late-antique city: a bibliographic essay 17
Poulter has argued for radical discontinuity in the function of cities in late antiquity, as forti received specialist studies.68 A major focus of much of Liebeschuetz's recent work has been to
fied outposts of the state largely excluding civilian urban populations; this seems appropriate elucidate the character of urban political life in the late 5th and 6th c. This period has been
to much of the Balkans, but it is a model that does not transfer elsewhere in its entirety.59 somewhat neglected, but his Decline and fall of the Roman city seeks to redress this balance,
Ward-Perkins and G.-P. Brogiolo's volume on the Idea and ideal of the city addresses both the providing a much-needed context to understand developments such as the rise of circus
concept of the city and its depiction in art and literature.60 There has been much other work factions.69 Liebeschuetz has made innovative suggestions regarding civic finance in a recent
relating especially to the depictions of cities in art and what they might imply.61 article. There have been specialist studies of local or imperial functionaries based in cities in
this period, such as the pater, the pagarch and vindex, as there have of the comites civitatis
Urban political life of the barbarian kingdoms.70 Many developments can be seen in greatest detail in Egypt,
though the particularity of Egyptian institutions means that these have greatest value as a
The urban politics of late antiquity62 has long been seen in terms of decline, particularly in
reflection of practice elsewhere, rather than as a direct basis for generalisation. J. Gascou's
terms of the decline of the curial order and with it the traditional institutions of city govern
article "Les grands domaines, la cite et l'etat en Egypte Byzantine" is fundamental for urban
ment. Jones's Later Roman Empire took this tone, as did Liebeschuetz's Antioch. Whittow
politics in this region.71
struck a different note in his "Ruling the late Roman and early Byzantine city: a continuous
history", emphasising the long-term continuities of elite governance in the east Mediterranean The increased role of governors in cities is a major feature of urban politics from the early
city.63 Liebeschuetz followed this to a certain extent in his "The end of the ancient city", 4th c.: Lewin, in this volume and elsewhere, has explored the implications of this develop
emphasising continuity and orderly city government. Now, however, he considers that the ment, which affected all cities, not just provincial capitals.72 A recent volume of Antiquite
replacement of government by curiales with 'government by notables', led by the bishop, resul Tardive is devoted to governors and provides good background and references to earlier litera
ted in the demise of classical monumentality and recognisably ancient urban life.64 His Antioch ture.7 3 The administration of the urban prefect for Rome is the subject of a monograph by A.
remains fundamental for 4th-c. urban political life, especially the interaction of city councils Chastagnol, whilst G. Dagron covers the equivalent prefect and other institutional matters for
and the agents of imperial government, and on the development of a powerful inner core of Constantinople. Jones's Later Roman Empire includes a chapter on the administration of both
leading curiales, the principales. T. Kotula has detected members of these groups in the cities.74 The role of bishops in urban politics has deservedly attracted much attention; Liebe
epigraphy of Africa.65 Lewin is the latest to consider civic finances, in the present volume, and schuetz has considered their role in detail, for both East and West, making many references to
includes a bibliography on this substantial and important debate. Lewin has elsewhere earlier studies. E. Rebillard and C. Sotinel have edited a volume on the topic. Because of the
considered the survival of traditional city magistracies and evergetism in the 4th and 5th c.66 especially prominent position of bishops in Gaul, specialist studies for this region are particu
Lep_elley c~vers all these issues in detail for the 4th to early 5th c. in his fine monograph on larly worthwhile.75 The Christianisation of the city did of course extend beyond the immed
Africa, whilst Bowman and Bagnall provide useful coverage for Egypt. Di Segni's work on iate activities of bishops, and encompassed changes in festivals, ideas of the community, and
Palestine and Arabia is of an exemplary quality.67 The offices of curator and defensor have how power was conceived and operated; R. Markus's The end of ancient ChristianihJ and P.R.
L. Brown's Power and persuasion in late antiquity are starting points for these issues. For recent
226, 1994) 288-99.
59 Poulter (supra n.19) 131-32. 68 F. Pergami, "Sulla istituzione de! 'defensor civitatis'," Studii et documenta historiae et iuris 61 (1995)
60 G. P. Brogiolo and B. Ward-Perkins (ed.), The idea and ideal of the town betwJen late antiquitt; and the 413-32; B. R. Rees, "The defensor civitatis in Egypt," JJP 6 (1952) 73-102; B. R. Rees, "The curator
early Middle Ages (Leiden 1999) 127-46. civitatis in Egypt," in JJP 7-8 (1953-54) 83-105.
61 E.g., P.-A. Fevrier, "Images de la ville clans la chretiente naissante," in Actes XI Cong. Int. Arch. Chret. 69 See also W. Liebeschuetz, "Administration and politics in the cities of the 5th to 6th centuries with
(CollEFR 123, 1989) 1371-92; G. Mansuelli, "La rappresentazione della citta nell'arte tardo-antica e special reference to the circus factions," in Lepelley (supra n.56) 161-82; Alan Cameron, Circus factions
bizantina," in Corsi di cultura 19 (1972) 239-44; I. Ehrensperger-Katz, "Les representations des villes (Oxford 1976).
fortifies clans l'art paleochretien et leurs derives byzantines," CahArch 19 (1969) 1-27. 70 J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, "Civic finance in the Byzantine period: the laws and Egypt,'' BZ 89.2 (1996)
62 On most aspects of late-antique urban politics Liebeschuetz (supra n.24) provides relevant 389-408; C. Roueche, "A new inscription from Aphrodisias and the title nat11p 1:11c; n6A.Eroc;," GRBS 20
bibliography. (1979) 173-85; D. Feissel, "Nouvelles donnees sur !'institution du ltCX'TTlP Tiic; itOA.Eroc;," in G. Dagron
63 M. Whittow, "Ruling the late Roman and early Byzantine city: a continuous history," Past and Present and D. Feissel, Inscriptions de Cilicie (Paris 1987) 215-20; W. Ensslin, "Vindex," RE IX, Al (1961) 25-
129 (1990) 3-29. 27; A. Chavout, "Curiales et paysans en Orient a Ja fin du Ve et au debut du Vle siecle: note sur
64 J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, "The end of the ancient city," in Rich (supra n.8) 1-49. !'institution du 'vindex'," in E. Frezouls (ed.), Societes urbaines, societes rurales dans l'Asie mineure et la
65 T. Kotula, "Les 'viri principales' dans Jes textes epigraphiques de Lepcis Magna," ArhVest 28 (1977) Syrie hellenistique et romaine (Strasbourg 1987); on the office of pagarch, with comprehensive earlier
436-4_5; id., "Principales almae Karthaginis," AntAfr 14 (1979) 237-45; id., "Die 'principales curiae' im bibliography, see R. Mazza, "Ricerche sul pagarca nell' Egitto tardoantico e bizantino," Aegyptus 75
stadtischen Leben und in der Geschichte des romischen Nordafrica," Klio 64 (1982) 431-35. (1995) 169-242; D. Claude, "Untersuchungen zum fri.ihfrankischen 'Comitat'," Zeitschrift fiir
66 A. Lewin, Assemblee popolari e lotta politica nelle cittil dell' impero romano (Firenze 1995) 95-97; id. Rechtsgeschichte 81 (1964) 1-79; J. Declareuil, "Les comtes de la cite," Rev. Hist. Droit Franrais 34
(su~r~ n.52~ 99-116; on the survival of traditional magistracies in Italy see C. Lepelley, "Permanence de (1910) 794-836.
la cite class1que et archai:smes municipaux en Italie au Bas-Empire," in Christo! et al. (supra n.48) 353. J. Gascou, "Les grands domaines, la cite et l'etat en Egypte byzantine," Tr&Mem 9 (1985) 7-80.
71
:1; on ~vergetism se: W~rd-Perkins (supra n.17), Roueche (supra n.54), and E. Patlagean, Pauvrete 72 Lewin (supra n.66) 97-99. Lewin (supra n.52) 99-116.
econom1que et pauvrete sociale ii Byzance, IVe-VIIe siecles (Paris 1977). 73 AnTard 6 (1998) entitled Les gouverneurs de province dans l'Antiquite Tardive.
67 Lepe~l:,Y (s~pra n.30) vol. 1; Bowman, Town councils (supra n.28); Bagnall (supra n.28) 54-105; L. Di 74 A. Chastagnol, La prefecture urbaine ii Rome sous le Bas-Empire (Paris 1960); Dagron (supra n.38) 226-
Segru,_ The mvolve~~~'. of local, municipal and provincial authorities in urban building in late-antique 73.
Palestme an~ Arab~~- m J. H_. Humphre~ (~d.)_, The Rom_an and Byzantine Near East (IRA Suppl. 14, 75 Liebeschuetz (supra n.24). E. Rebillard and C. Sotinel (edd.), L'eveque dans la cite du !Ve au Ve siec/e
1995) 312-32,_ ~ad., Metropoh~ and provmc1a m Byzantme Palestine," in A. Raban and K. Hoium, (CollEFR 248, 1998); M. Heinzelmann, "Bischof und Herrschaft vom spatantiken Gallien bis zu den
C~esarea Marzt1ma. A retrospective after two millennia (Leiden 1996) 575-84; Jones, LRE (supra n.2), is karolingischen Hausmeiern," in F. Prinz (ed.), Herrschaft und Kirche (Stuttgart 1988) 23-82; J. Harries,
still fundamental on these and all other matters of civic politics. "Christianity and the city in late Roman Gaul," in Rich (supra n.8) 77-98; A. Avramea, "Les construc
tions profanes de l'eveque clans l'epigraphie grecque," Actes XI Cong. Int. Arch. Chret. (1989) 829-35.
18 Luke Lavan The late-antique city: a bibliographic essay 19
work on the territoria of cities in both East and West, see the European Science Foundation's Anatolia, which may well radically alter views of the urban development of many sites in
Towns and their territories between late antiquity and the early middle ages. 76 this region.82 D. Pringle has produced a substantial monograph on Africa's defence.83
The Christianization of urban topography
Urban topography
The Christianisation of urban topography is a vast topic. Although it is of central impor
Our knowledge of late-antique urban topography has been transformed by advances in
tance it will only be touched on briefly here. Dagron's "Le christianisme dans la ville byzan
archaeological work over the last 30 years, particularly in the Levant. It is important to point tine" 1provides a conceptual outline of the issues involved in this process.84 Fowden has studied
out, however, that the best studies have incorporated considerations of relevant textual sour
the end of the temples in the eastern Mediterranean; the same topic in the West has_ been
ces. Although thirty years old, D. Claude's treatment of monuments and topography contains
covered by J.P. Caillet.85 Descriptions of churches and related monuments can be found in the
many textual references and some archaeological observations of relevance.77 T. Potter gave an
various volumes of the International congress of Christian archaeology. Urbanism is considered
introductory consideration to late-antique urban topography in his Towns in late antiquity.
in detail in the volumes of the eleventh congress.86 Bishops' palaces have been studied by W.
Synthetic work like this is particularly important, because many topographical features of the
Muller-Wiener, whilst D. Pallas has assembled relevant literary sources.87 References to many
later city are shared right across the Mediterranean, to a greater degree than during the early
major ecclesiastical complexes can been found in the thematic volume of Antiquite Tardive 4
Empire. This is true of religious building and of the infrastructure of imperial and provincial
(1996) concerned with Les eglises doubles et les familles d'eglises. Extreme caution should be
capitals. However, it is also true that overall urban trajectories diverge widely during the
taken over the dating of many churches excavated in the Mediterranean. Hardly any have
period, as do standards and forms of construction; for example, newly cut statuary seems to be
been stratigraphically dated and mosaic inscriptions, which provide a valua?le record of
largely confined to Greece and western Asia Minor. Therefore it seems unlikely that all
benefaction, may not always be part of the original floor.88 An interpretative essay on
topographical elements will be suitable for synthetic treatments beyond the level of regional
conceptual problems involved in studying the Christian urban transition has been produced by
studies.
A. J. Wharton using a number of cities as case-studies.89
City walls
Palaces, praetoria and other buildings of state
Fortifications have been studied by S. Johnson for Britain, Gaul and the Rhine, though these
The identification of imperial palaces and the praetoria of governors has been based o_n
and Spanish fortifications have attracted synthetic work more recently.78 Christie has made
rather impulsive local reactions to spectacular discoveries, rather than on any systematic
several contributions to our understanding of fortifications in soutnem Gaul and Italy, including
methodology. N. Duval has written extensively on the subject, pointing out many cases where
a paper in this volume. Here and elsewhere Christie touches on the poor dating of fortifica
such identifications are unsustainable.90 Nevertheless, reasonable identifications of imperial
tions, and detailed work on individual sites now seems necessary as a prelude to rewriting
palaces do seem to have been made at Trier, Arles, Savaria and, of course, several sites in _Rome
earlier accounts. 79 Lewin has devoted half of his Studi sulla cittii imperiale romana
and Constantinople.91 I have investigated the praetoria of governors as part of my thesis and
nell'Oriente tardoantico to fortification in the East.80 J. Crow's paper in this volume deals
with fortification in the Balkans and Asia Minor.81 T. E. Gregory, J. J. Wilkes and G. Fowden
have all written on urban fortification in Greece. A new programme of work by the British 82 E.g., C. Foss, Survey of medieval castles of Anatolia (BAR S261, Oxford 1996).
School of Archaeology at Ankara is undertaking to publish much reJevant fieldwork for 83 D. Pringle, The defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab conquest (BAR S99, Oxford 1981);
' R. Rebuffat, "Enceintes urbaines et insecurite en Mauretanie Tingitane," MEFRA 86 (1974) 501-22.
84 G. Dagron, "Le christianisme clans la ville byzantine," DOP 31 (1977) 3-25.
76 R. Markus, The end of ancient Christianity (Cambridge 1990); P. R. L. Brown, Power and pers11asion in 85 G. Fowden, "Bishops and temples in the eastern Roman empire 320-435," ]ThS n.s. 29 (1978) 53-78; J.-P.
late antiquity (Madison, WI 1992); Brogiolo, Gauthier and Christie (supra n.38). Caillet, "La transformation en eglise d'edifices publics et de temples a la fin de l'antiquite," in Lepelley
77 Claude (supra n.3) chapt. 1.1-3 "Die Topographie". (supra n.56) 191-211.
78 S. Johnson, Late Roman fortifications (London 1983); P. Garmy and L. Maurin (edd.), Enceintes romaines 86 Actes XJ Cong. Int. Arch. Chret. (1989), esp. vol. 1 for urbanism; B. Brenk, "La cristianizzazione della
d'Aquitaine (DAF 53, 1996); M. Mackensen, "Late Roman fortifications and building programmes in the citta tardoantica," in Dupre Raventos (supra n.19) vol. 1, 129-35; P. Pergola, "Topografia cristiana e
province of Raetia," in J. D. Creighton and R. J. A. Wilson (edd.), Roman Germany. Studies in c11/t11ra/ rinnovamento urbano," Corso di mltura 52 (1995) 747-69; N. Gauthier, "La topographie chretienne
interaction (]RA Suppl. 32, 1999) 199-244; C. Fernandez Ochoa and A. Morillo Cerdan, "Fortificaciones entre ideologie et pragmatisme," in Brogiolo and Ward-Perkins (supra n.60) 195-210; A. Poulter,
urbanas de epoca bajoimperial en Hispania," Cuadernos de Prehistoria y Arqueologia 18 (1991) 227-59 "Churches in space," and other papers in K. Painter (ed.), 'Churches built in ancient times' (London
and ibid. 19 (1992) 319-60. 1994) 249-68.
79 N. Christie, "Defences and defended in late-Roman SW Gaul," JRA 10 (1997) 489-94. lmportant recent 87 W. Muller-Wiener, "Bischofsresidenzen des 4.-7. Jhs. im ostlichen Mittelmeer-Raum" in Actes XI Cong.
work on fortifications: S. Esmonde-Cleary et al., "The late Roman defences at Saint-Bertrand de Int. Arch. Chret. (1989) 651-709; D. I. Pallas, "Episkopion," Reallexikon zur byzantinischen Kunst 2.2
Comminges (Haute Garonne)," JRA 11 (1998) 343-54; N. Christie and A. Rushworth, "Urban fortifi (1968) cols. 335-71.
cation and defensive strategy in fifth and sixth century Italy: the case of Terracina," JRA 1 (1988) 73-88; 88 For review articles of ecclesiastical archaeology in and beyond the city see Actes XI Cong. Int. Arch.
J. Crow and A. Ricci, "Investigating the hinterland of Constantinople: interim report on the Anastasian Chret. (1989); for an example of a well-dated church, see Poulter (supra n.86).
Long Wall," /RA 10 (1997) 235-63. 89 A. J. Wharton, Refiguring the post-classical city: Dura Europos, Jerash, Jerusalem and Ravenna
80 Lewin (supra n.52) 9-98; D. J. Smith and J. Crow, "The Hellenistic and Byzantine defences of Tocra (Cambridge 1995).
(Taucheira)," LibStud 29 (1998) 35-82, which also looks at 5th-6th c. fortifications throughout the East. 90 For debate on late-antique palaces see N. Duval, "Le palais de Milan parmi Jes residences imperiales du
81 For the northern Balkans see F. E. Wozniak, "The Justinianic fortification of interior Illyricum," in Bas-Empire," in Sena Chiesa and Arslan (supra n.36) 138-46; for Italy see Ward-Perkins (supra n.17)
Hohlfelder (supra n.22) 199-209; T. E. Gregory, "Fortification and urban design in early Byzantine 157-78.
Greece," ibid. 75-114; id., "The early Byzantine fortifications of Nikopolis in comparative perspective," 91 Trier: Die Basilika in Trier. Festschrift zur Wiederherste/lung 9. Dezember 1956 (Trier 1956); Aries: M.
in E. K. Chrysos (ed.), Nikopolis 1 (Preveza 1987) 253-61; G. Fowden, "Late Roman Achaea. Identity and Heijmans, "Le 'Palais de la Trouille' a Aries: palais imperia1e ou palais du prefet?" AnTard 7 (1999)
defence," JRA 8 (1995) 549-67; J. J. Wilkes, "Civil defences in third century Achaia," in S. Walker and 209-31. Savaria: E. T6th, "Late antique imperial palace in Savaria," ActaArchHung 25 (1973) 117-37
Averil Cameron, The Greek renaissance in the Roman empire (London 1989) 187-92. and pls. 25-28; For the latest on the Great Palace at Constantinople see J. Bardill, "The Great Palace of
20 Luke Lavan The late-antique city: a bibliographic essay 21
have published a gazetteer of credible and possible sites, identified mainly on the basis of late Roman auditoria at Alexandria.104 A. Lewin has produced an article on gymnasia in. late
epigraphy, in addition to the synthesis in this volume.92 Horrea relate to state taxation and antiquity, one feature of the urban landscape that did not survive through to the 6th c.105 Bath
distribution processes, usually associated with the imperial court, governors or the army. buildings and a whole series of secular public buildings are covered by M. M. Mango in her
Fabricae, imperial armaments factories, have been considered by S. James.93 The impact of the chapter on "Buildings and architecture" for the Cambridge Ancient History.106 For commentary
army on urban topography has yet to be the subject of a systematic study; although its impact on public buildings of all kinds one should refer to B. Ward-Perkins's exemplary monograph
was greatest in frontier regions such as the Rhine and Danube, changes in military strategy with wide-ranging references up to its date of publication, though it is primarily concerned
meant that cities deep within the provinces could be affected. Poulter's summary of urban only with north and central ltaly.107
development on the Danube and Dunn's recent work show how much potential exists in enquiries
There is important work being done on aqueducts and urban water supply at Rome by R.
into this aspect of later urbanism.94
Coates-Stephens, and around Constantinople by J. Crow and A. Ricci.108 However, there is as
Public buildings and amenities yet no synthetic work on aqueducts and urban water supply for late antiquity. H. Kennedy and
B. Ward-Perkins have debated the decay of orthogonal street grids; however, the topic has not
Of traditional civic monuments and spaces, the forum/ agora is one of the few to have receiv
yet been addressed systematically from the archaeological evidence, and street grids continued
ed a study for the late-antique period.95 Street monuments, including statues, honorific columns
109
to be used in town planning in late antiquity and in the early Islamic Near East. The greatest
and monumental crosses, are the subject of a recent monograph by F. Bauer; for honorific columns
extension of urban planning in late antiquity is found in the increasing development of porticoed
at Constantinople see recent and older studies by C. Mango.96 B. Ward-Perkins and J. Elsner
shopping streets. Ward-Perkins, Potter and A. Segal have discussed them,110 but the impor
have contributed recent studies on the Arch of Constantine.97 R. R. R. Smith is currently
tance of these buildings as indicators of urban prosperity has, I think, been underestimated.
working on late-antique statuary, seeking to place it back within its urban context.98
They seem a better reflection of ordinary, rather than political, prosperity than do churches.
Entertainment buildings had a chequered history in late antiquity. Liebeschuetz and Ward Scythopolis has provided perhaps the best selection of late-antique shopping streets, many of
Perkins have outlined the historical sources for this issue.99 The early 4th c. was the greatest which passed straight through older, "irrelevant" Roman public buildings.111
period of circus construction, partly because of the development of various tetrarchic
Housing
'capitals'.100 R. Lim has written recently on the provision of games at Rome.101 Several circuses
in Palestine/A rabia and several stadia in western Asia Minor and Greece were converted into Late-antique urban housing has been treated by N. Duval, J.-P. Sodini and S. P. Ellis.112
amphitheatres by or during late antiquity.102 Late alterations to theatres have attracted the Ellis has discerned several important developments in late domus architecture, which he
attention of C. Roueche in Asia Minor, whilst A. Segal has summarised later alterations to
theatres in the Levant and Cyrenaica. Roueche has studied inscriptions relating to and
inscribed on entertainment buildings at Aphrodisias.103 E. Rodziewicz provides a context for 104 C. Roueche, "Inscriptions and the later history of the theatre," in R. R. R. Smith and K. Erim (edd.),
Aphrodisias papers 2 ORA Suppl. 2, 1991). Late-antique alterations to theatres in Palestine and else
where: A. Segal, "Theatres of ancient Palestine during the Roman-Byzantine period," SCI 8-9 (1985-89)
the Byzantine emperors and the Walker Trust excavations," JRA 12 (1999) 216-30. On imperial palaces 158-59; E. Radziewicz, "Late Roman auditoria in Alexandria in the light of ivory carvings,"
and related monuments in general, see T. Brown, Emperors and imperial cities, AD 284-423 (diss. Univ. BullSocArchAlexandrie 45 (1993) 269-77.
of Oxford 2000). i 10s A. Lewin, "II mondo dei ginnasi nell'epoca tardoantica," in Atti Accad. Romanistica Costantiniana 10
92 L. Lavan, "Late antique governors' palaces: a gazetteer," AnTard 7 (1999) 135-36. (1995) 623-28.
93 G. Rickman covers the literary and epigraphic evidence for horrea in his Roman granaries and store 106 M. M. Mango, "Building and architecture," in Averil Cameron and B. Ward-Perkins (edd.), CAH 14
buildings (Cambridge 1971). On Jabricae see S. James, "The fabricae: state arms factories of the later (forthcoming); see also F. Yegiil, Baths and bathing in classical antiquity (Cambridge, MA 1992).
Roman empire," in J.C. Coulston (ed.), Military equipment and the identity of Roman soldiers (BAR S394, 107 Ward-Perkins (supra n.17).
Oxford 1988) 257-331. 108 R. Coates-Stephens, "The walls and aqueducts of Rome in the early Middle Ages, A.D. 500-1000," JRS
94 Poulter (supra n.19); A. Dunn "Was there a militarisation of the southern Balkans during late anti 88 (1998) 166-78. On Constantinople see Crow and Ricci (supra n.79) and K. <;ec;en, The longest Roman
quity?" in International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies 18 (BAR forthcoming). water supply line (Istanbul 1996).
95 Potter (supra n.7). 109 H. Kennedy, "From polis to madina: urban change in late antique and early Islamic Syria," Past and
96 F. A. Bauer, Stadt, Platz und Denkmal in der Spiitantike (Mainz 1996); Mango, Studies (supra n.38) Present 106 (1985) 3-27; B. Ward-Perkins, "Urban survival and urban transformation in the eastern
chapts. 3, 4 and 10. Mediterranean," in G. P. Brogiolo (ed.), Early medieval towns in the western Mediterranean (Mantua
97 B. Ward-Perkins, "Reusing the architectural legacy of the past, entre ideologie et pragmatisme," in 1996) 148-52. For Italy: B. Ward-Perkins, "Can the survival of an ancient town-plan be used as
Brogiolo and Ward-Perkins (supra n.60) 225-44; J. Elsner, "From the culture of spolia to the cult of evidence of dark-age urban life?" in G. Cavalieri Manasse and E. Roffia (edd.), Splendida civitas rrostra
relics: the Arch of Constantine and the genesis of late-antique forms," PBSR 68 (2000) 149-84. (Rome 1995) 223-29; G. Cantino Wataghin, "Quadri urbani nell' Italia settentrionale: tarda antichlta e
98 R. R. R. Smith, "The public image of Licinius I: portrait sculpture and imperial ideology in the early alto medioevo," in Lepelley (supra n.56) esp. 248-50. For extension of the orthogonal street grid at
fourth century," JRS 87 (1997) 170-202; id., "Late antique portraits in a public context: honorific Carthage in the 5th c. A.O. see CEDAC Carthage 6 (1985) 21. For 'Anjar, Lebanon in the 8th c. see R.
statuary at Aphrodisias in Caria," JRS 89 (1999) 155-89. Hillenbrand, "'Anjar and early Islamic urbanism," in Brogiolo and Ward-Perkins (supra n.60) 59-98.
99 Liebeschuetz (supra n.4) 140-45; Ward-Perkins (supra n.17) 92-118. 110 Ward-Perkins in Brogiolo ibid. 148-52; Potter (supra n.7) 80-90; A. Segal, From function to monument
100 J. H: Humphrey, Roma~ ci'.cuses (London 1986); G. Vespignani, "Aspetti della relazione tra ippodromo e (Oxford 1997) 5-53.
la c1tta dalla tarda anhchita al secolo XIT," Rivista di Bizantinistica 2 (1992) 151-56; C. Heucke, Circus 111 Y. Tsafrir and G. Foerster, "Urbanism at Scythopolis-Bet Shean in the fourth to seventh centuries,"
und Hippodrom als politischer Raum (Hildesheim 1994). DOP 51 (1997) 85-146.
101 R. Lim, "People as power: games, munificence and contested topography," in Harris (supra n.32) 265-83. 112 N. Duval, "Les maisons. d'A pamee et !'architecture 'palatiale' de l' Antiquite tardive" in J. Balty (ed.),
102 K. Welch, "The stadium at Aphrodisias in Carfa," AJA 102 (1998) 547-69; ead., "Greek stadia and Ille Colloque Apamee de Syrie (Brussels 1984) 447-70; J.-P. Sodini, "Habitat de l'Antiquite tardive,"
~oman_spectacles: Asia, Athens and the tomb of Herodes Atticus," JRA 11 (1998) 117-45; z. Weiss, Topoi 5 (1995) 151-218 and ibid. 7 (1997) 435-577; id., "L'habitat urbain en Grece a la veille des
Adoptmg a novelty: the Jews and the Roman games in Palestine," in Humphrey (supra n.53) 23-51. invasions," in Villes et peuplement (supra n.21) 341-97; S. P. Ellis, "The end of the Roman house," AJA
103 C. Roueche, Performers and partisans at Aphrodisias in the Roman and late Roman periods (London 1993).