Reassessing Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Africa: A Critical Terrorism Study Alta Vermeulen

236 Pages·2015·1.7 MB·English

Reassessing Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Africa:
A Critical Terrorism Study

Alta Vermeulen
REASSESSING TERRORISM AND COUNTER-TERRORISM IN
AFRICA:
A CRITICAL TERRORISM STUDY
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Magister Artium
in the Department of Political Studies and Governance

Alta Vermeulen
2008000081

University of the Free State

2014

Supervisor: Professor Hussein Solomon
I, Alta Vermeulen, declare that the thesis which is hereby submitted for the
qualification Magister Artium at the University of the Free State is my own
independent work and has not been handed in before for a qualification at-in another
University/faculty.

The ownership of all intellectual property pertaining to and/or flowing from the thesis
(including, without limitation, all copyright in the thesis), shall vest in the University of
the Free State.

Date of birth: 7 December 1990
Place of birth: Welkom, South Africa
Education: Matriculated at Goudveld Hoërskool (2008)
BA (Journalism and Media Studies), University of the Free State
(2011)
BA Hons (International Relations), University of the Free State
(2013)
ABSTRACT
Terrorism is one of the fastest expanding fields of study today. Since the 9/11
attacks in New York, terrorism has received an increasing amount of attention from
researchers, the media and the international community. Yet, terrorism in Africa is
not at all a new phenomenon, neither are the ways to combat this terrorism threat.
However, no sustainable way to ameliorate the threat in Africa has been found. This
might indicate a need for revisiting the current approaches to terrorism and counter-
terrorism. This study aims to do just that by using Critical Terrorism Study (CTS) as a
theoretical anchor. The study incorporates a sceptical approach to traditional ways of
doing terrorism research and challenges orthodox ways of approaches counter-
terrorism. The research is conducted by looking at three of the most prominent
terrorist organisations in Africa; Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), Boko
Haram and Al-Shabaab. CTS does however not reject current and traditional ways of
research, but incorporates different fields of study which were traditionally seen as
inapplicable to the study of terrorism. In order to try and ameliorate the terrorism
threat in Africa, new approaches are necessary, and to form these new approaches,
new knowledge creation must take place. By broadening the scope of the study of
terrorism, it becomes clear that although the terrorist groups in this study have
several characteristics in common, they also have deep-rooted and resounding
differences. By uncovering these differences, be it the reaction to colonialism in
Algeria, or the inherent belief of marginalisation by a certain group in Nigeria, or clan-
loyalties in Somalia, it is evident that these groups cannot be grouped under the
umbrella category of ‘terrorism in Africa’. In this study, the historical, political,
religious and even economic backgrounds of the groups mentioned – or the areas in
which they manifest themselves– are examined. Upon closer examination of different
fields of study either regarding the certain region in which the group is active, or the
underlying beliefs of individuals within the group, connections can be found that
serve either as motivation or justification of the terrorist group’s actions. This variety
of information is not intended to overwhelm or intimidate the leader, but should serve
as a framework from which a certain terrorist organisation can be analysed. This
analysis can further determine whether it is necessary to revisit the current and
traditional ways of approaching terrorism and counter-terrorism. These approaches
are not limited only to research and examination of these groups, but also pertains to
international interventions and assistance within the geographical areas of interest.
Since international actions taken to confront these groups have over the time already
developed significantly – still without any sustainable amelioration of the effects of
terrorism – international knowledge creation should also be challenged. Clearly
something is missing. CTS does not intend to emerge as the sudden ‘cure-all’ for the
terrorism threat in Africa, but will serve as a step in a new direction of terrorism
study. By broadening and simultaneously deepening the research done of these
groups and the contexts in which they manifest themselves, this study hopes to open
the door to the possibility of sustainable amelioration of the terrorism threat in Africa.
VOORWOORD
Een van die vinnigste ontwikkelende studievelde vandag is sekerlik terrorisme. Na
die bekende 9/11 aanvalle in New York, het terrorisme al hoe meer aandag begin
verkry; van navorsers, die media en die internasionale gemeenskap. Tog is
terrorisme in Afrika eintlik glad nie ‘n nuwe verskynsel nie en die maniere om dit te
probeer beveg en bekamp nog minder. Hoekom is daar dan steeds nie ‘n manier om
volhoubare verligting mee te bring nie? Hierdie vraag dui dalk op die nood om
huidige benaderings tot terrorisme en die teenkanting daarvan te herondersoek.
Hierdie studie poog om juis dit te doen deur gebruik te maak van Kritiese Terrorisme
Studie (KTS) as ‘n teoretiese raamwerk. Die studie inkorporeer ‘n skeptiese
benadering tot tradisionele maniere van terrorisme-navorsing, en daag ortodokse
maniere van die teenkanting van terrorisme uit. Die navorsing word uitgevoer deur te
kyk na drie van die mees prominente terroriste organisasies in Afrika; Al-Kaïda in die
Islamitiese Maghreb (AQIM), Boko Haram en Al-Shabab. KTS verwerp nie huidige
en tradisionele wyses van navorsing nie, maar inkorporeer wel verskillende
navorsingsvelde wat tradisioneel gesien word as ‘nie van toepassing’ binne die
studie van terrorisme. Om die terrorisme bedreiging in Afrika te probeer verlig, is
nuwe benaderings nodig. Om hierdie nuwe benaderings te vorm, moet nuwe kennis
geskep word. Deur die huidige studie van terrorisme te verbreed, raak dit duidelik
dat alhoewel die terroriste organisasies in hierdie studie ‘n groot aantal
karaktertrekke deel, daar ook diep-gewortelde en beduidende verskille bestaan.
Deur hierdie verskille te ondersoek - van die reaksie op kolonialisme in Algerië, die
oortuiging van diskriminasie in Nigerië, tot etniese lojaliteite in Somalië - raak dit
duidelik dat hierdie groepe nie onder dieselfde ‘sambreel’ van terrorisme in Afrika
geplaas kan word nie. In hierdie studie word die geskiedkunige, politiese, religieuse
en selfs ekonomiese agtergronde van die groepe – of die areas waarin hulle
ontwikkel – ondersoek. Die doel van die wye verskeidenheid informasie wat
ondersoek is, is nie om die leser te oorwelding of intimideer nie, maar poog om te
dien as ‘n raamwerk vanwaar ‘n sekere terroriste organisasie ondersoek en
analiseer kan word. Hierdie analise kan verder vasstel of dit wel nodig is om huidige
benaderings tot terrorisme en die teenkanting daarvan te ondersoek. Hierdie
benaderings is ook nie beperk tot slegs navorsing en ondersoek van hierdie groepe
nie, maar is ook van toepassing op internasionale intervensies en bystand binne die
sekere geografiese areas. Internasionale reaksies wat al geneem is om hierdie
groepe te beveg het reeds baie ontwikkel, maar steeds sonder enige volhoubare
maniere van verligting van die effekte van terrorisme. Dus kan daar gesê word dat
internasionale kennis van hierdie groepe uitgedaag en ontwikkel moet word. KTS
moet nie gesien word as ‘n skielike ‘wonder-kuur’ vir terrorisme in Afrika nie, maar
sal dien as ‘n tree in ‘n nuwe rigting van die studie van terrorisme. Deur die
studieveld te verbreed en terselfde tyd te verdiep, hoop hierdie studie om die deur
oop te maak na die moontlikheid van volhoubare verligting van die effekte van
terrorisme in Afrika.

Key word and phrases:
Critical Terrorism Study; Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb; Boko Haram; Al-
Shabaab; terrorism; historical development; motivations; international responses;
regional expansion; sustainable amelioration
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page number
List of Acronyms
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Orientation 1
1.1.1 Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb 2
1.1.2 Al-Qaeda and its Expansion through Boko Haram and Al-Shabaab 2
1.1.3 Critical Terrorism Study 4
1.2 Literature Review 5
1.2.1 The Literature and Data Sources Consulted for this Study 6
1.3 Problem Statement 8
1.4 Research Question 9
1.5 Aim of the Study 10
1.6 Purpose and Significance of the Study 10
1.7 Research Methodology 13
1.8 Structure of the Research 15
1.9 Conclusion 17
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Orthodox Security Studies and Critical Security Studies 18
2.1.1 The Problem of Definitions 18
2.1.2 Why the Concept of ‘Security’ is not Sufficient 21
2.2 Critical Security Studies (CSS) – the First Step in a New Direction 22
2.2.1 Schools of Security: Aberystwyth, Copenhagen, and Paris 24
2.3 The Shift from a sub-field to Terrorism Studies 30
2.4 Critical Terrorism Studies – the Necessary Alternative 31
2.4.1 Traditional Approaches to Terrorism – and the Insufficiency Thereof 32
2.4.2 How to Apply CTS – and the Value Thereof 34
2.4.3 The CTS Explanation of ‘What Terrorism Is’ 35
2.4.4 CTS and its Ethical Commitments 37
2.5 Conclusion 37
CHAPTER 3
3.1 The Origins of Terrorism in Algeria 39
3.1.1 The Home-Ground Advantage 40
3.1.2 The Root of Algeria’s Instability 43
3.1.3 The Origin of Islamism and Terrorism in Algeria 44
3.2 The Predecessors of AQIM 46
3.2.1 The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) 47
3.2.2 The Groupe Salafiste pour la Predication et le Combat 48
3.3 The Development of AQIM 49
3.3.1 Strategy and Ideology 51
3.3.2 Membership and Recruitment 54
3.4 Expansion 55
3.4.1 AQIM and the Malian Crisis 57
3.4.2 AQIM Arming Itself with Libyan Weapons 59
3.5 AQIM and Al-Qaeda Senior Leadership (AQSL) 61
3.5.1 The Abbottabad Documents 63
3.6 Sustainable Profit through Criminal Enterprises 66
3.6.1 Kidnapping for Ransom 66
3.6.2 The Contraband Trade 68
3.7 Regional and International Response 69
3.7.1 The Failure of Algeria’s CEMOC 70
3.7.2 ECOWAS and the AU Partnership 71
3.7.3 The UN and MINUSMA 74
3.8 Conclusion 76
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Nigeria – the Warning Signs of Colonialism and Amalgamation 79
4.1.1 The Politicisation of Religion 81
4.2 Northern and Southern Nigeria 84
4.2.1 Economic Development 84
4.2.2 Federal Balancing and Power Sharing 86
4.2.3 Religious Rule 90
4.3 The Development of Boko Haram 93
4.3.1 The Initial Formation of Boko Haram 94
4.3.2 Ideology and Motivation 96
4.3.3 Membership and Recruitment 99
4.4 Affiliation 103
4.4.1 Boko Haram Learning from Al-Qaeda 103
4.4.2 Boko Haram and AQIM 104
4.4.3 Boko Haram and Support from Al-Shabaab 107
4.5 Boko Haram’s Sustainability 108
4.5.1 Acquiring Weapons 109
4.5.2 Kidnapping 110
4.6 Regional and International Action 112
4.6.1 The (delayed) African Response 112
4.6.2 International Action 115
4.7 Conclusion 117