Table Of ContentRational and Irrational Beliefs
Rational and
Irrational Beliefs
Research, Theory, and Clinical
Practice
Edited by Daniel David,
Steven Jay Lynn, and Albert Ellis
Preface
In the 1950s, influential researchers and theoreticians (e.g., Noam Chomsky,
George Miller, Alan Newell, Herbert Simon) departed from the behaviorist
tradition and broke the intellectual ground for the nascent field that Ulrich
Neisser (1967) termed "cognitive psychology" in his book by the same name.
During this fertile period, Albert Ellis parted ways with both psychodynamic
and behavioral psychotherapists to delineate a cognitive approach to
conceptualizing and treating psychological conditions. As early as 1955, Ellis
applied the verb catastrophize (and later awfulize) to the way people think
when they are anxious. After the publication of the article "Rational
Psychotherapy" (Ellis, 1958) and the seminal book Reason and Emotion in
Psychotherapy (Ellis, 1962, 1994), Ellis became a tireless advocate of a
cognitive approach to psychotherapy. Although other professionals (e.g.,
Adler, Horney, Kelly) before him had stressed the importance of cognitions
in the clinical field, they did not promote the cognitive paradigm as an entity
in and of itself. It is fair to assert that Ellis's rational-emotive behavior
therapy (REBT), which highlights the integral role of cognition in adaptive
and maladaptive functioning, is the oldest form of cognitive-behavior therapy
(CBT) and represents the prototype of contemporary cognitive-behavior
therapies.
By identifying the manifold ways in which individuals react to similar
situations, and by exploring how their attitudes, beliefs, and expectancies
shape their reality and behavior, Ellis played a pivotal role in instigating the
"cognitive revolution" in psychotherapy and psychology more broadly.
Accordingly, it is not surprising that concepts derived from REBT have
penetrated and/or been assimilated by cognitive psychology, psychotherapy,
and many domains of mainstream psychology, including the psychology of
stress, coping, and resilience. Indeed, contemporary cognitive-behavioral
therapies, regardless of their stripe, share the following propositions, derived
from or related to Ellis's REBT: (i) cognitions can be identified and
measured, (2) cognitions play a central role in human psychological
functioning and disturbance, and (3) irrational cognitions can be replaced
with rational cognitions and thereby abet functional emotional, cognitive, and
behavioral responses in keeping with personal goals and values.
Ellis's "ABC(DE)" model is the cornerstone of REBT and cognitive-
behavioral therapies. In a nutshell, Ellis argued that individuals respond to an
undesirable or unpleasant activating (internal or external) event (A) with a
gamut of emotional, behavioral, and cognitive consequences (C). The diverse
ways in which people respond to the same or similar events is largely the
result of differences in their cognitions or belief systems (B). Rational beliefs
can be characterized as efficient, flexible, and/or logical. Rational beliefs
promote selfacceptance and adaptive coping with stressful events, reduce
vulnerability to psychological distress, and play an instrumental role in
achieving valued goals.
According to REBT, beliefs are infused with emotion. In fact, Ellis has
argued that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are intimately interconnected.
Irrational beliefs (IBs) are related to unrealistic demands about the self (e.g.,
"I must be competent, adequate, and achieving in all respects to be
worthwhile."), others ("I must become worried about other people's
problems."), and the world or life conditions ("I must be worried about things
I cannot control.") and are associated with a variety of dysfunctional feelings
and behaviors. According to Ellis, vulnerability to psychological disturbance
is a product of the frequency and strength of irrational beliefs, as compared to
rational beliefs. Clients who engage in REBT are encouraged to actively
dispute/restructure (D) their IBs and to assimilate more efficient (E) and
rational beliefs in order to increase adaptive emotional, cognitive, and
behavioral responses. It is notable that this general framework (at least the A-
B-C part of Ellis's scheme) is at the heart of most, if not all, cognitive-
behavior therapies.
Cognitive-behavioral therapies are the most popular contemporary
therapeutic approaches (Garske & Anderson, 2004), and have steadily
increased in acceptance and influence. Not surprisingly, thousands of books
and scholarly publications have been devoted to cognitive psychology and
CBT. Since its introduction to the psychological community, hundreds of
papers have been published on the theory and practice of REBT. Some
studies (e.g., Dryden, Ferguson, & Clark, 1989; McDermut, Haaga, & Bilek,
1997) have confirmed the main aspects of Ellis's original REBT theory (Ellis,
1962), whereas other studies (e.g., Bond & Dryden, 2000; Solomon, Haaga,
Brody, & Friedman, 1998) have made critical contributions to the evolution
of REBT theory and practice (for details, see Ellis, 1994; Solomon & Haaga,
1995). Furthermore, meta-analytic studies have supported the contention that
REBT is an empirically supported form of CBT (e.g., Engels, Garnefski, &
Diekstra, 1993).
Despite the centrality of rational and irrational beliefs to CBT and REBT,
it is also legitimate to say that no available book, monograph, or resource
provides a truly accessible, state of the science summary of research and
clinical applications pertinent to rational and irrational beliefs. Our concern
about this gap in the extant literature provided the impetus for this volume.
This book is designed to provide a forum for leading scholars,
researchers, and practitioners to share their perspectives and empirical
findings on the nature of irrational and rational beliefs, the role of beliefs as
mediators of functional and dysfunctional emotions and behaviors, and
clinical approaches to modifying irrational beliefs and enhancing adaptive
coping in the face of stressful life events. Many of the chapters in this volume
represent international collaborations, and bring together and integrate
disparate findings, to offer a comprehensive and cohesive approach to
understanding CBT/REBT and its central constructs of rational and irrational
beliefs. The authors review a steadily accumulating empirical literature
indicating that irrational beliefs are associated with a wide range of problems
in living (e.g., drinking behaviors, suicidal contemplation, "life hassles"), and
that exposure to rational self-statements can decrease anxiety and
physiological arousal over time and can be a major tool in health promotion.
The contributors identify areas that have been "underresearched," including
the link between irrational beliefs and memory, emotions, behaviors, and
psychophysiological responses.
The major focus of our book is on rational and irrational beliefs as
conceptualized by proponents of REBT. However, the contents encompass
other cognitive constructs that play an influential role in cognitive-behavior
therapies including schemas, response expectancies, intermediate
assumptions, automatic thoughts, and appraisal and coping. While important
in their own right, these concepts are discussed in terms of their relation to
rational and irrational beliefs and their role in cognitive-behavioral therapies
and psychotherapy more generally. In addition to focusing on the ways
irrational beliefs hamper adequate functioning, we highlight how rational
beliefs contribute to positive coping and engender resilience in the face of
stressful life events.
It bears emphasizing that our book is not be an "advocacy piece," slanted
toward positive findings regarding REBT. In fact, where appropriate, the
contributors directly challenge claims made by proponents of REBT and
other cognitive therapies. Our intention was to produce a balanced, critical
treatise that provides: (a) cogent summaries of what is known and what is not
known about irrational beliefs, (b) suggestions for future research to address
important unresolved questions and issues, and (c) up-to-date information for
practitioners to guide their clincal practice.
Our book is organized in six parts. Part i (Foundations) introduces the
reader to the fundamentals of understanding rational and irrational beliefs
from a conceptual, historical, cultural, and evolutionary perspective. Chapter
i (Ellis, David, and Lynn) traces the historical lineage of the concept of
rational and irrational beliefs from the vantage point of REBT, but also
discusses the role of rational and irrational beliefs in terms of an array of
cognitive mechanisms and constructs. Chapter 2 (Still) approaches
definitional issues surrounding irrationality from a logical and historical
perspective, discussing the implications of different ways of construing
irrationality. Chapter 3 (David and DiGiuseppe) and Chapter 4 (Wilson)
contain provocative analyses of rational and irrational thinking from a
sociocultural and evolutionary perspective, respectively.
Part II (Rational and Irrational Beliefs: Human Emotions and Behavioral
Consequences) further explores the role of irrational and rational beliefs in
human functioning. Chapter 5 (Szentagotai and Jones) examines the
influence of these beliefs in human behavior, whereas Chapter 6 (David and
Cramer) discusses the role of rational and irrational beliefs in human feelings,
encompassing both subjective and psycho-physiological responses.
Part III (Clinical Applications) turns to clinical implications of
understanding and modifying irrational beliefs and instating more rational
ways of viewing the self and the world. The section begins with a
foundational chapter (Chapter 7, Macavei and McMahon) on assessing
irrational and rational beliefs, which provides many useful suggestions for
measuring and evaluating beliefs in research and clinical contexts. The next
two chapters (Chapter 8, Browne, Dowd, and Freeman; Chapter 9, Caserta,
Dowd, David, and Ellis) review the literature on irrational and rational beliefs
in the domains of psychopathology and primary prevention, respectively,
whereas Chapter io (David, Freeman, and DiGiuseppe) explores the role of
irrational beliefs in stressful and nonstressful situation in health promoting
behaviors, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and psychotherapy in general. In
Chapter ii, Mellinger examines the ways that mindfulness has been integrated
into contemporary therapeutic approaches to the treatment of irrational
thinking in emotional disorders and reviews approaches that stand in sharp
contrast to REBT.
Part IV (Physical Health and Pain) extends consideration of rational and
irrational beliefs to the arena of physical health and pain. Schnur,
Montgomery, and David (Chapter 12) review the literature on irrational and
rational beliefs and physical health, and propose a new model for testing the
influence of irrational beliefs on health outcomes. Ehde and Jensen (Chapter
13) summarize what is now a compelling literature linking catastrophizing
cognitions to the experience of pain, and provide an overview of theory,
research, and practice of cognitive therapy for pain.
In the penultimate Part V (Judgment Errors and Popular Myths and
Misconceptions), Ruscio (Chapter 4 underscores the ways that judgment
