Rastafari in the Promised Land: The Spread of a - Amherst College

33 Pages·2007·0.72 MB·English

Rastafari in thePromisedLand:The Spreadof aJamaicanSocioreligious
Movement amongtheYouthof West Africa
NeilJ.Savishinsky
AfricanStudiesReview,Vol.37,No.3.(Dec.,1994),pp.19-50.
StableURL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-0206%28199412%2937%3A3%3C19%3ARITPLT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M
AfricanStudiesReviewiscurrentlypublishedbyAfricanStudiesAssociation.
YouruseoftheJSTORarchiveindicatesyouracceptanceofJSTOR'sTermsandConditionsofUse,availableat
http://www.jstor.org/about/terms.html.JSTOR'sTermsandConditionsofUseprovides,inpart,thatunlessyouhaveobtained
priorpermission,youmaynotdownloadanentireissueofajournalormultiplecopiesofarticles,andyoumayusecontentin
theJSTORarchiveonlyforyourpersonal,non-commercialuse.
Pleasecontactthepublisherregardinganyfurtheruseofthiswork.Publishercontactinformationmaybeobtainedat
http://www.jstor.org/journals/afsta.html.
EachcopyofanypartofaJSTORtransmissionmustcontainthesamecopyrightnoticethatappearsonthescreenorprinted
pageofsuchtransmission.
TheJSTORArchiveisatrusteddigitalrepositoryprovidingforlong-termpreservationandaccesstoleadingacademic
journalsandscholarlyliteraturefromaroundtheworld.TheArchiveissupportedbylibraries,scholarlysocieties,publishers,
andfoundations.ItisaninitiativeofJSTOR,anot-for-profitorganizationwithamissiontohelpthescholarlycommunitytake
advantageofadvancesintechnology.FormoreinformationregardingJSTOR,[email protected].
http://www.jstor.org
SunOct719:57:422007
Rastafari in the Promised Land: The Spread
of a Jamaican Socioreligious Movement
Among the Youth of west Africa
Neil J. Savishinsky
Parallel with and spurred on in part by the emergence of
Jamaican reggae onto the international pop music scene in the mid-
1970s, the Jamaican Rastafarian movement, whose origins are to be
found on the island of Jamaica in the early 1930s,' has within the past
two decades managed to expand beyond its island homeland and attract
a widespread and culturally diverse global f~llowing.~
Until now, the movement has drawn its largest and most commit-
ted following from among those whose indigenous culture has been sup-
pressed, and in certain instances completely supplanted, by Western
models imposed during centuries of European and American colonial ex-
pansion. For the young unemployed or underemployed Maori in New
Zealand, Havasupai Indian living on a reservation at the bottom of the
Grand Canyon, West Indian struggling for survival in Brixton and
Ghanaian in Accra trying to come to terms with urban living in a multi-
ethnic, post-colonial African society, adherence to Rastafari provides
an alternative source of meaning and identity to a life frequently punc-
tuated by hopelessness, alienation and despair in what is often per-
ceived as a hostile, corrupt and hypocritical Eurocentric environment.
If Rastafarianism functions as an ideological corrective to the
suffering, exploitation and alienation experienced by young people of
color the world over, it holds an especially heightened resonance and
appeal for Africans and those of African descent. And while the mes-
sages expounded by the Rastafari promote love and respect for all liv-
ing things and emphasize the paramount importance of human dignity
and self-respect, above all else they speak of freedom from spiritual,
psychological as well as physical slavery and oppression (things
Africans have come to know much about over the course of the last four
centuries, be it directly via the holocaust of the Middle Passage or in-
directly through the degrading experience of colonization). In their at-
tempts to heal the wounds inflicted upon the African race by the civi-
lized nations of the world, Rastas continually extol the virtues and su-
periority of African culture and civilization past and present. And for
many young people in Africa and throughout the African Diaspora,
- --
Afican Studies Review,Volume 37, Number 3 (December1994),pp. 19-50.
AFRICAN STUDIES REVIEW
Rastafari serves as a potent symbol and expression of defiance, inde-
pendence, racial pride and solidarity.
Like the Pan-Africanists who preceded them and from whom
they borrowed so much (individuals like Edward W. Blyden, Dr.
W.E.B. Dubois, Frantz Fanon, Bishop Henry McNeal Turner and most
notably Marcus Mosiah Garvey3),R astas have been instrumental in
helping Black youth become more aware of their long and venerable
history and in teaching them not to be ashamed of their race and cul-
tural heritage. As one writer put it (Forsythe 1980), Rastafari repre-
sents the "resurgence of African revivalism and spiritualism, and hence
qualifies as an authentic mass African renaissance movement."
The primary aim of this paper is to examine the spread of the
Jamaican Rastafarian movement and its attendant forms of cultural ex-
pression to West Afri~aa,n~d in so doing to pinpoint the various mecha-
nisms and processes that have over the course of the past two decades
contributed to its diffusion among urban-based West African youth.
Throughout I will be using the terms Rastafarian, Rastafari and Rasta
interchangeably in referring to this basically amorphous and decen-
tralized movement whose membership the world over is commonly
identified by adherence to and/or utilization of a core set of:
(1)Beliefs-That God ("Jah") is black; that Haile Selassie I (the de-
ceased former emperor of Ethiopia who is also referred to by his
given name and title Ras Tafari, is the Messiah prophet of the Black
race and God incarnate; that the evils of the world can be attributed
to the pervasive and corrupting influences of Western civilization
("Babylon"); that the redemption of Blacks in the Diaspora is
contingent on their return "home" to Africa ("African
Repatriation"); that Rastas are the true descendants of the ancient
Israelites depicted in the Old Testament; that Western Christianity
represents a corruption of a purer and more ancient Judeo-Christian
tradition that has been faithfully preserved throughout the millennia
by the 1500-year-old Ethiopian Coptic Church; and that the world
will shortly self-destruct as prophesized in the Book of Revelations
("The Apocalypse") and be replaced by a new, divinely inspired age
populated by those judged righteous enough to survive the final
battle of Armageddon.
(2) Rituals and practices-The ritual/secular use of music (Reggae
and NyabingiJ music) and drugs (gatlja); strict adherence to dietary
proscriptions derived in large part from the Old Testament; constant
study, discussion and reinterpretation of the teachings contained in
the Bible and the speeches of Marcus Gamey and Haile Selassie
(usually within the context of collective "reasoning session^"^);
and the cultivation of attitudes and habits deemed conducive to pro-
moting a healthy and upstanding way of life (e.g. eating only pure,
unprocessed foods, eschewing the use of hard drugs and alcohol,
placing maximum emphasis on individual freedom and self-initiative
and acting honestly in all dealings with one's fellow human beings).
Rastrzfnri in the Promised Land
(3) Modes of appearance, dress and speech-The wearing of
"dreadlocks" (the long matted hair style that has the world over be-
come synonymous with the culture of Rastafari) and brightly col-
ored clothing and ornaments in various combinations of the colors
red, gold (or yellow), green and black (the "colors of Africa"), along
with the use of "iyaric" or "Dread talk" (a special language or di-
alect, consisting of a mixture/modification of Jamaican Creole and
Standard English, created by Rastas to express their heightened con-
sciousness and profound awareness of the true nature and power of
the spoken word) (cf. Pollard 1980; 1982).
Mediums of Diffusion
The spread and popularity of Rastafarian religion and culture in
West Africa can, it appears, be linked to the following set of interre-
lated agencies or factors: (1) the widespread appeal and penetration of
reggae music and the religious and sociopolitical messages embodied
therein, (2) the ritual/secular use of cannabis and its associated trade,
(3) the appropriation of Rasta-inspired fashions and (4) the mission-
ary work carried out by Jamaican and Anglo-Jamaican Rastas. Below I
will examine each of these components separately in an attempt to gain
a better understanding of the contributions they have made and con-
tinue to make in spreading the religion and culture of Jamaican
Rastafarianism in West Africa.
The Music
What is perhaps most unique about Rastafari is that it may rep-
resent the only contemporary socioreligious movement whose diffusion
is directly tied to a medium of popular culture, reggae music (a form of
Jamaican pop music which developed in the late 1960s from a fusion of
its antecedents ska and rock steady with African drumming techniques
and American rhythm and blues, soul, gospel and rock music [see Clarke
1980; Davis 19821).
That reggae music caught on fairly quickly in Africa is not sur-
prising, given the tremendous popularity Caribbean music has enjoyed
throughout the continent for the past 50 years. In the 1960s and 70s for
example, Zaire represented one of the largest markets in the world for
the sale of salsa and rumba records (Bergman 1985,47), and much of the
African pop music being played today (e.g. the ubiquitous Zairian souk-
ous and its many offshoots) has been heavily influenced by Latin
American rhythms and melodies (Bergman 1985; Collins 1985; Graham
1988; Stapleton and May 1987). Similarly, many contemporary African
pop musicians who later went on to develop their own unique indigenous
styles-people like Youssou N'Dour of Senegal and the Zairians Tabu
Ley Rochereau and Franco-began their careers playing the then
AFRICAN STUDIES REVIEW
widely popular Afro-Cuban "rumba" music (Cathcart 1989; Stapleton
and May 1987).
Since the mid-to-late 1970~A~fr ica has also served as a major in-
ternational market for reggae music. As Sebastian Clarke (1980, 167)
points out:
some of the white record companies' motivation for entering the reg-
gae music business is the large market for reggae in Africa . . . .Since
the early 1950s Calypso, and later all forms of Jamaican music, sold
massively on that continent, so it does not come as a surprise that
this market absorbs a greater proportion of sales [in reggae] than
that of Europe or America.
Like everywhere across the globe, it was Bob Marley who served
as the foremost apostle of reggae on the African continent. During a trip
to Africa in the early 1980~S~te phen Davis (1982, 82) heard Marley's
songs being played wherever he traveled, and in an article published in
the Village Voice in March of 1984, Randall Grass claimed Marley to
be one of the best-selling musical artists on the continent (second only to
the country singer Jim Reeves). African reggae musicians frequently cite
Marley as their earliest and most enduring musical (as well as ideolog-
ical) influence, and I can personally attest to the immense popularity
he continues to enjoy in places like Mali, Senegal, Gambia, Ghana,
Burkina Faso and the C6te d'Ivoire.
The impact of Bob Marley (both his music and media-generated
image) on youth in West Africa, and West African Rastas in particular,
should not be underestimated. Throughout much of the region (and from
what I can gather, the continent as a whole), Marley's songs can be
heard blasting out of boom boxes and stereo systems in bars, discos and
taxicabs; his cassettes are on sale in urban and even rural marketplaces;
and his dreadlocked profile stares out from t-shirts and wall posters in
market stalls, homes and restaurants. Along with Muhammad Ali,
James Brown and Michael Jackson, Bob Marley ranks among the most
popular and influential pan-African heroes of all time-being widely
known, listened to, admired and idolized by young people everywhere.
One would be hard pressed to find an urban-based West African youth
who is not familiar with this man and his music, and it is, I believe, no
exaggeration to claim that for many the name of Bob Marley is synony-
mous with both reggae and Ra~tafarianism.~
Reggae made its initial impact in Africa during the mid-1970s,
and since this time it has served as a major force in the urban pop music
scenes of numerous (particularly Anglophone) West African nations.
And while the reasons for this are fairly complex and varied-ranging
from the structural and functional affinities that exist between indige-
nous African musical forms and reggae, the potent appeal of the music's
religiously inspired and sociopolitically charged song texts and the ea-
Rastafari in the Promised Land
gerness on the part of young people in Africa to identify with a Black,
transnational pop music idiom-there is little doubt that as foreign mu-
sical styles and influences go, reggae holds a prominent place in the
hearts and minds of a fairly large contingent of young West Africans. As
one astute Nigerian reggae musician observed:
The problem with people in the diaspora is similar if not identical to
the situation here in Africa. The colonies are fighting for freedom,
the independent states are fighting against neocolonialism, and the
overall effect is perpetual instability, with the common man feeling
the brunt of it all. Living in a depressed economic condition where
the standard of living is deplorable, there will always be a cry for
improvement especially where protest cannot be directly registered.
It is inevitable to embrace the messages and philosophies of reggae
music as a means of protest against the oppressors and self-aggran-
dizement.
The images and tribulations portrayed through the records of reggae
musicians make the music very attractive to the African people. The
fact that the original roots of Reggae music is Africa facilitates the
swiftness in rekindling the flames of the music, especially after its re-
finement with scientific tools and instruments in the Western world,
even though the messages remain very original and unadulterated.
Just like cocoa seeds taken away raw and brought back fully refined as
cocoa drinks, beverages and body lotions, it will alwaysfind a place in
the heart ofour people at all tinres (Tera Kota, cited in Steffens 1990,
64) [emphasis added].
Throughout the region one finds a profusion of cassettes by
Jamaican, Anglo-Jamaican and African reggae artists on sale in record
shops and market stalls in every major city and most large towns.
Reggae is also frequently heard on local radio stations, in taxis, discos,
on street comers and everywhere young people congregate. Furthermore,
many West African pop musicians have either played reggae music at
one point in their careers or incorporated reggae rhythms and/or Rasta-
inspired lyrics in their songs.
In an article by Graeme Ewens (West Africa 1990, 2136) chroni-
cling the growth of pop music in Africa during the past decade, the vi-
tal contributions made by reggae to the West African pop music scene
are duly noted-Ewens in turn asserting that the upsurge in popularity
of reggae among West African youth developed out of their growing
dissatisfaction with both the overproduced, high-tech Western
disco/rap/funk that has lately been "swamping the dance floors" of ur-
ban nightclubs and the perceived stuffiness and rigidity of traditional
music. Reggae's widespread appeal, according to this author, is based
upon its ability to successfully combine both these musical forms by uti-
lizing innovative Western technology while at the same time retaining
much of the music's original African flavor, creating a unique blend of
both the old and the new.
AFRICAN STUDIES REVIEW

For decades now, Nigerians have been listening and dancing to
reggae; initial interest in this Jamaican music can be traced back to the
early 1970s when the film The Harder They Come, which featured the
Jamaican reggae artist Jimmy Cliff and a soundtrack consisting entirely
of reggae songs, was first shown in movie theaters in the Nigerian capi-
tal, Lagos. Since then the growing appeal of reggae here has, according
to Roger Steffens (1990, 14), founding editor of The Beat,sresulted in its
adoption as the nation's "preeminent rhythm and urban youth culture
phenomenon":
Name this country: There are dreadlocks in its teeming streets, sport-
ing red, gold, and green clothing festooned with badges whose patois
inscriptions call for peace, love, and I-nity. Its jam-packed nightclubs
feature djs toasting over dub tracks, while couples wine and grind
till dawn. Its stores rapidly sell out the latest Reggae hits by artists
with names like Ras Kimono, Kole-Man Revolutionaire, and the
Mandators. Meanwhile, perplexed authorities lament the eclipse of
the country's traditional culture and the hold that reggae has taken
of its youth. Jamaica, right? Wrong. You're in Nigeria, where reggae
is king.
And while this journalistic description may be somewhat over-
stated, the many reggae clubs and groups presently functioning in
Nigeria and the regional/international popularity that a handful of
the country's major reggae artists have attained (people like Sonny
Okuson, Evi-Edna Ogholi and Majek Fashek), no doubt underscores the
vibrancy of the current reggae music scene here.
In the other Anglophone nations of West Africa--Gambia, Sierra
Leone, Liberia and Ghana-the situation vis-a-vis reggae and contem-
porary urban youth culture is similar to that described above. To cite
just one example: with the possible exception of Gambia and Nigeria,
nowhere in the region does reggae enjoy such a large and devoted fol-
lowing as in Ghana. Nearly all the music outlets (from large record
shops to tiny market stalls) in the capital Accra and other large
Ghanaian cities and towns stock a wide assortment of reggae cassettes
by African, Jamaican and Anglo-Jamaican reggae artists (the most pop-
ular among these being the West African singers/songwriters Evi-Edna
Ogholi, Majek Fashek and Alpha Blondy and the Jamaican superstars
Bob Marley, Peter Tosh and Jimmy Cliff). Accra even boasts a number of
music shops devoted entirely to reggae, (one of which is even owned and
operated by a Jamaican) where the largest selection of LPs and cas-
settes by both the more popular and lesser known African reggae artists
can be found.
In a survey conducted by the ethnomusicologist Andrew Kaye in
1989 of 210 young people residing in Accra and Kumasi, Bob Marley
ranked highest in popularity from among a list of a dozen well-known
foreign and Ghanaian musicians: 73 percent of those sampled cited
Rastafari in the Promised Land
Marley as one of their favorite artists, while the African-American
pop singer Lionel Ritchie, the Ghanaian highlife singer A.B. Crentsil,
and the American country and western singer Jim Reeves all vied for the
number two position, each with popularity ratings of approximately 60
percent) (Kaye, personal communication).
Reggae also receives a substantial amount of airplay on GBC's
(Ghana Broadcasting Corporation) Radio One. In a survey I conducted
over a two month period, in which a total of 45 hours of radio pro-
gramming was sampled on different days and during varying timeslots,
reggae received on average 20 percent of the airtime taken up by mu-
sic-a figure only slightly lower than that for Ghanaian Highlife (24
percent) and Anglo-American pop music (27 percent), and one signifi-
cantly higher than that for American country (8 percent), other African
(8 percent) and gospel music (5 percent). Andrew Kaye received very
similar results when he asked 82 record store salesmen in Accra (mostly
young men in their 20s) to state their favorite type of music: 30 percent
chose funk, 30 percent highlife and 18 percent reggae (Kaye, personal
communication).
And while neither the preferences of the populations sampled in
Kaye's surveys nor the types of recordings played most frequently on
the radio by local DJ's accurately reflect the musical tastes of the ma-
jority of Ghanaians nationwide, they do, however, provide a fairly
good picture of the types of music listened to most by the country's major
trend setters (i.e. DJs and urban-based youth).
Apart from just listening to reggae, African musicians have for
the past few decades been experimenting with this musical genre as
well. And while much of the reggae recorded by these artists is virtu-
ally indistinguishable from its Caribbean prototype (containing stan-
dard Jamaican reggae beats, melodies and lyrics sung in English), there
are those artists who have gone a step further and utilized their native
languages and focused on themes of local, national and/or regional im-
port in at least a sampling of their songs. An excellent example of this
can be seen in the work of Evi-Edna Ogholi-the "Queen of Nigerian
reggaeH--a substantial portion of whose repertoire is sung in her native
Isoko and focuses on issues relating specifically to Nigerian society and
culture. In her song "One Kilometer" (1988), for example, Ogholi com-
ments on the incredible amount of linguistic diversity that exists in her
country and the urgent need to find a viable common language:
Which one of them me go speak

I say which one of them me go speak

Which one of them me go speak

Which one of them me go speak
AFRICAN STUDIES REVIEW
Me travel to Emede me go speak Isoko
Me travel to Urhelli me go speak Uroko
Me travel to Enugu me go speak Ibo
Me travel to Sokoto me go speak Fulani
Me travel to Kaduna me go speak Hausa
One kilometer means another language
One half kilometer means another language
All I'm saying's lingua franca
All I'm saying's lingua franca
As discussed in greater detail below, across West Africa reggae
music often functions as just such a lingua or rnusicafranca-transcending
ethnic, national and regional boundaries through its perceived connec-
tions to Caribbean and transnational pop music culture and its heavy re-
liance on the use of English (and in francophone countries, both English
and French) song texts.
While African musicians have over the years been incorporating
stylistic elements borrowed from reggae into their music (the
Zimbabwean Thomas Mapfumo, to cite one prominent example), some
like the Ivorian Alpha Blondy and the Ghanaian Sympleman Cantey
have created a totally new form of syncretic African pop music, singing
for the most part in their own local languages and employing indigenous
African instruments, melodies and rhythms in their mix. This musical
synthesis has proven so potent that it has been feeding back into the in-
ternational pop scene, influencing the music of both Jamaican and
British reggae musicians. As the musicologist John Collins (1985, 93) ob-
served, "With reggae music looking to Africa for inspiration, and
African musicians playing local versions of reggae, it is no wonder that
the resulting Afro-reggae fusion is breaking all national boundaries and
drawing the pop scenes of Europe, the New World and Africa closer to-
gether."
The attraction reggae holds for Africans may be attributed in
part to the fact that it functions simultaneously on two very important
levels: as an entertaining and very danceable form of consciousness rais-
ing and, just as importantly, as a means of expressing pan-African soli-
darity with their brothers and sisters in the Diaspora (a kind of
"spi~itualh ands across the water between the Old World and the
New" to once again quote Steffens [1990,64]).
As my research bears out, throughout much of Western Africa reg-
gae music also serves as the principle medium for spreading the religion
and culture of Rastafari. Of the 100 or so Rastas I interviewed in
Ghana, where two distinct Rastafarian communities are presently func-
tioning-one affiliated with the Ethiopian World Federation [EWF]
and the other with the Jamaican-based Twelve Tribes of Israel-80
percent admitted that their initial interest in Rastafari was stimu-
Rastafari in the Promised Land
lated by a prior exposure to reggae. And in the vast majority of cases it
was the music of Bob Marley in particular that made the greatest and
most lasting impression on these young people (although the songs of
Peter Tosh, Jimmy Cliff and African reggae artists like the Ivorian
Alpha Blondy, the Nigerians Evi-Edna Ogholi and Majek Fashek, and
the South African Lucky Dube have exercised a considerable influence
here as well).
That reggae should play such a crucial role in the spread of
Rastafarian movement in West Africa is not surprising when one takes
into account the special emphasis placed on music (and in certain in-
stances popular music) in many of the region's new urban-based religious
formations. Strong links are known to exist, for example, between juju
music and the Nigerian Aladura churches (Collins and Richard 1982,
127, 132), and many of the musicians and hymns used by independent
spiritual churches in Ghana are drawn from highlife music (these
churches having in turn spawned a new and popular music genre called
"spiritual highlife") (Chernoff 1985, 165). The anthropologist John
Chemoff (1985) could just as easily be speaking about the two major cen-
ters of Rastafarian activity in Ghana (i.e. the Twelve Tribes compound
in Labadi and the EWF house in Dzorwulu) when he mentions how
these churches often serve as places where members can "experience
brotherhood and sisterhood in an atmosphere of love, obtain spiritual
guidance and support to deal with their problems, and, of course, have
a great time dancing and singing."
In both the Western and the non-Western world popular music
frequently serves as a powerful symbol of cultural identity and an im-
portant medium of expression and conflict mediation for those strug-
gling against the alienation, exploitation and impoverishment that is
often a byproduct of the changes wrought by urbanization and modern-
ization (Manuel 1988). Similarly, popular music also functions as a ma-
jor contributor to the creation and maintenance of new social images and
identities that have developed in response to the novel conditions en-
gendered by urban living; large cities often serve as "bridge-heads of
transnational cultural influences" and urban-based pop musicians
highly visible "culture brokers" who play a dominant role the shaping
of an "urban consciousness" and defining the aspirations of urban-based
youthlo (Hannerz 1992, 230).
In West Africa, these new urban-based identities are often rooted
in the construction of a pan-ethnic and/or pan African consciousness, and
pop music-which tends to cut across linguistic, ethnic, social and na-
tional boundaries-has proven a potent force for promoting interethnic
and cross-cultural contacts and communication and for fostering a
heightened sense of urban, national, regional and pan-African aware-
ness and solidarity (cf. Barber 1987,77; Chernoff 1985,156; Coplan 1978,
110-12 and 1982, 116; Ware 1978,315-18).