RASTAFARI BUSH DOCTORS IN THE WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA By Lisa Philander

416 Pages·2010·6.53 MB·English

by  Lisa Philander

AN EMERGENT ETHNOMEDICINE: RASTAFARI BUSH DOCTORS IN THE
WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA

By

Lisa Philander

Copyright ©Lisa Philander 2010
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the
GRADUATE INTERDISCIPLINARY PROGRAM IN
ARID LANDS RESOURCE SCIENCES

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

2010
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THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
GRADUATE COLLEGE
As members of the Practice Inquiry Project Committee, we certify that we have
read the practice inquiry project report prepared by Lisa Philander entitled “An
Emergent Ethnomedicine: Rastafari Bush Doctors in the Western Cape, South
Africa” and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation
requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
_______________________________________________Date: August 27, 2010
Paul Robbins-Professor and Head, School of Geography and Development

_______________________________________________Date: August 27, 2010
Mark Nichter-Regents' Professor and Professor of Anthropology, Public Health,
Family Medicine
_______________________________________________Date: August 27, 2010
Suzanne Fish-Professor of Anthropology and Curator Arizona State Museum

_______________________________________________Date: August 27, 2010
Leslie Gunatilaka-Professor; Director, Natural Products Center

Final approval and acceptance of this practice inquiry project is contingent upon
the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the practice inquiry project to the
Graduate College.
I hereby certify that I have read this practice inquiry project prepared under my
direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the practice inquiry
project requirement.

_______________________________________________Date: August 27, 2010
Dissertation Director: Paul Robbins- Professor and Head, School of Geography
and Development
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STATEMENT BY THE AUTHOR
This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an
advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library
to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission,
provided that accurate acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for
extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be
granted by the copyright holder.

SIGNED: Lisa Philander
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people helped to make this work possible but I would like to begin by
acknowledge those who contributed to this research with their expertise on local plant
uses: Sista Herbs; Doctor Gad Fluffy; Hirathito Roltland; Josheph Angelo; Ruben, Levite
Enoch, Congo Dada and Isaac Lormore of Kraaifontain, Appollis Levi Morris Isaac
Lorimore, Ras Judah Jonathan, D. Zebulon Silwer, Freddie Asher Davids, Wayne
Benjamin Klassen, Morkel, John Ontong, Simon Fire Eyes Swartz and Christopher
Zebulon Warries from Paarl, Jean Pierre James, Sarel Botha, Paul de Bryun, and Franz
Judah Martinez of Franschoek; Christopher Naftali Saayman, Gad, Brian Dan, Simion of
Atlantis; Neville and Ruben van Schallwyk of Hillview; Johnnie Malgas Bobo Asher,
Rubern, Judah of Knysna; Craig Joubert, Brian Olsen, Carlo Randall, and “Mama”
Dorothy Williams from Cape Town; Johannes Asher Ewerts, Beano Ewerts, Warrior
from Oudtshorn, Isacc and Asher of Clotesville, Bobo Black, Daniel Ocean, Levi-
Benjamin and Zebulon from Ocean View, Kelvin (Gad) Ferguson of Delft, Patrick
(Ruben) Cornelius of Groverwatch; Johnny Vercuil of Pieketberg; Martinez (Levi)
Daniels of Porterville; Naftali Green and Judah Bobo Brown of Citrusdahl; Leonard
Vilijoen of Vredenburg; Lionel Cloete, William Cloete of Nabeep; Brian Korah Damonse
and Gustav Mowers of Stellenbosch.
I thank my PhD committee members at the University of Arizona: to Professor Paul
Robbins, my committee chair, thank you for teaching me to extract the theoretical from
the details and for your dedication to the facilitation of this research. To Dr. Barron Orr,
who helped me focus on the research design, implementation and analytical verification.
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To Professor Suzanne Fish, thank you for mentoring and motivating me regarding the
breadth of ethnobotanical discovery. Your creative mentoring has inspired me to continue
this work further. To Professor Leslie Gunatilaka, thank you for a broader and more
global background in medicinal plant science with an emphasis on horticultural
applications. I also appreciate your attention to detail surrounding the plant materials in
this work. To Mark Nichter, thank you for your enthusiasm and continued demand for
excellence, which I found particularly inspiring.
I would also like to recognize my committee at Stellenbosch University who provided
assistance and direction while I was in the field. To Dr. Nakwanda Makunga, thank your
for your through provoking questions and encouragement to improve my research. To
Professor Karen Esler, thank you for your insightful contributions to this dissertation. To
Dr. John Manning, thank you for helping to identify hundreds of botanical specimens. To
Rupert Koopman, thank you for helping to organize confirmation meetings between
SANBI and the bush doctors.
I would like to thank my colleagues from the University of Arizona for contributing to
discussions and revisions of this research. In particular, to Kim Kelly, whose continued
insight and motivation was inspirational, and for her revisions on Chapter 4. To Tim
Aston, whose revisions polished the entire document.

I would like to thank my research assistants, Carlo Randall, Ruben Van Schalkwyk, and
SistaHerbs, for their tireless identification of plant names, Afrikaans translations and for
facilitating countless meetings with Rastafari.
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I thank those who made this research was made possible through a fellowship from The
Science Foundation of Arizona and with funding from the National Research Foundation
of South Africa and Stellenbosch University.
I am very grateful to my family who supported me throughout this process, many of
whom I stayed with throughout my fieldwork. To Marlene, Heidi, Guido, Laylaa De
Villiers, Auntie Sybbie Philander, Auntie Leshia Jacobs, Gail Jacobs, Kay Von Willingh,
and Melissa Von Willingh. I most graciously thank George and Hilda Philander for
opening their house and their lives to me. My most sincere and heartfelt thanks to my
family, especially my parents Eileen McKee and Dennis Philander, Chris Kaczor, Ryan
Philander and Ali Philander for their continued support, encouragement and inspiration.
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DEDICATION
For my new husband.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................15
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION...............................................................................17
CHAPTER TWO: RASTAFARI IN THE WESTERN CAPE.........................................25
Introduction.......................................................................................................................25
What is Rastafari?.............................................................................................................27
A Socio-Spiritual Movement............................................................................................29
Ethiopian Symbolism........................................................................................................31
Syncretic religions in Jamaica..........................................................................................33
Obeah............................................................................................................................33
Myal..............................................................................................................................34
Revivalism.....................................................................................................................35
Jamaican Zionists.........................................................................................................36
African Zionist..............................................................................................................38
Kumina (Cumina)..........................................................................................................38
Convince.......................................................................................................................39
History of Rastafari...........................................................................................................41
Garveyism.....................................................................................................................41
Repatriation..................................................................................................................42
Haile Selassie visits Jamaica........................................................................................43
Reggae Music................................................................................................................44
Rasta Proselytization....................................................................................................44
Nyabinghi and Rastafari Ceremonies...........................................................................44
Rastafari Livity and Symbology.......................................................................................47
Natural Livity................................................................................................................47
Language.......................................................................................................................48
The Rasta Code.............................................................................................................48
Dreadlocks....................................................................................................................48
Death.............................................................................................................................50
Fire................................................................................................................................51
Ital Diet.........................................................................................................................51
Ganja.............................................................................................................................53
Healing..........................................................................................................................54
Occupation....................................................................................................................56
One Love.......................................................................................................................57
Differentiation within Rasta..............................................................................................58
Greetings.......................................................................................................................58
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Nyabinghi......................................................................................................................59
Twelve Tribes Organization..........................................................................................60
Bobo Shanti...................................................................................................................62
Higes Knots or I-gelic Mansion....................................................................................63
Rude Boys......................................................................................................................64
Women...........................................................................................................................65
History of the Rastas in South Africa...............................................................................69
Methodology.....................................................................................................................71
Research Assistants.......................................................................................................71
Observations and Interviews.........................................................................................72
Results...............................................................................................................................73
Rasta population in the Western Cape..........................................................................73
Cape Rastafari..............................................................................................................73
Cape Greetings.............................................................................................................74
Two Sevens Clash.........................................................................................................74
Western Cape Rasta Mansions.....................................................................................75
Universal Movement of Rastafari.................................................................................76
Cape Nyabinghi............................................................................................................77
Bobo Shanti...................................................................................................................77
Sacman..........................................................................................................................78
Cape Female Rasta.......................................................................................................78
Conclusion........................................................................................................................79
CHAPTER THREE: NEO-TRADITIONAL SOUTH AFRICAN BUSH DOCTORS
AND THE ROLE OF HERBS FOR WESTERN CAPE RASTAFARI..........................81
Introduction.......................................................................................................................81
Identity Projects................................................................................................................86
KhoiSan.............................................................................................................................89
Coloured People................................................................................................................91
Dop System.......................................................................................................................95
Methods.............................................................................................................................97
Results...............................................................................................................................99
Bush Doctor Population...............................................................................................99
Rastafarians and Medicinal Plants..................................................................................101
Initiation......................................................................................................................101
Collection....................................................................................................................104
Bush Doctor................................................................................................................107
Bush Doctor Suffering....................................................................................................108
Conservation...............................................................................................................109
Health Security............................................................................................................110
Seasonality..................................................................................................................111
Collection Hazards.....................................................................................................112
Income.........................................................................................................................113
Commodification of Rastafari Herbs..............................................................................114
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Socio-Demographics.......................................................................................................116
Cape Rastafari and the KhoiSan.....................................................................................118
Coloureds and Jamaican Mulattos.............................................................................119
Coloureds and KhoiSan..............................................................................................121
KhoiSan and Rastafari................................................................................................122
Bush Doctor Repatriation...............................................................................................126
Knowledge Transmission, Indigeneity and Intellectual Property...................................128
Gendered Medicinal Plant Knowledge...........................................................................133
Healing............................................................................................................................138
Physical, Economic, and Environmental Healing......................................................139
Social Healing.............................................................................................................141
Replacing the Dop System..........................................................................................143
National Healing.........................................................................................................145
Conclusion......................................................................................................................147
CHAPTER FOUR: AN EMERGENT ETHNOMEDICINE: BUSH DOCTOR
ETHNOBOTANY AND PHARMACOPEIA................................................................151
Introduction.....................................................................................................................151
Disease Etiology and Diagnoses.....................................................................................154
South African Medical History...................................................................................155
Khoisan Healing.........................................................................................................158
Zulu and Xhosa Healing.............................................................................................161
Methods...........................................................................................................................165
Results.............................................................................................................................166
Rastafari Ethnobotany................................................................................................167
Non-Plant Substances.................................................................................................168
Non-Medicinal Plant Species......................................................................................170
Plant Ethnospecies......................................................................................................171
Plant Families.............................................................................................................172
Internal Consistency........................................................................................................175
Identification Consistency...........................................................................................176
Uses Consistency........................................................................................................178
Poisonous Plants.............................................................................................................180
Novel Medicinal Plants...................................................................................................183
Uses.................................................................................................................................185
Black Bush Doctors........................................................................................................189
Rastafarian Racism.....................................................................................................190
European Garden Plants..................................................................................................195
Cultural Origins of Ethnomedicines...............................................................................196
Preparations...............................................................................................................198
Classification of medicines.........................................................................................199
Emergent Ethnomedicine................................................................................................201
Conclusion......................................................................................................................210