Table Of ContentRadioecological
Techniques
Radioecological
Techniques
Vincent Schultz
Washington State University
Pullman, Washington
and
F. Ward Whicker
Colorado State University
Ft. Collins, Colorado
PLENUM PRESS. NEW YORK AND LONDON
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Schultz, Vincent.
Radioecological techniques.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Radioecology-Methodology. I. Whicker, F. Ward. II. Title.
QH543.5.S39 574.5'028 81-22706
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-4036-2 AACR2
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-4036-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-4034-8
001: 10.1007/978-1-4684-4034-8
© 1982 Plenum Press, New York
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1982
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All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
Alfred W. Klement, Jr.
Native Texan, Colleague, and Friend
Preface
During the twenty years the authors have been associated with the field of
radiation ecology, there has been a diversified and increasing use of radionuclides
in applied and basic biological research. Prior to the advent of the atomic age
in the 1940s the use of radionuclides as tracers was initiated, and following that
period one observed a dramatically increased use in many disciplines. Concurrent
with this increase there appeared many books and articles on radionuclide tech
niques useful to biologists in general. Although only a few ecological applications
were evident in these early years, ecologists were quick to see the opportunities
available in their field. In the United States, major centers for such activities
included Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the U. S. Atomic Energy Com
mission's Savannah River Plant. At Oak Ridge National Laboratory Dr. Stanley
I. Auerbach, director of ecological activities, encouraged with remarkable suc
cess the use of tracers by his associates. Dr. Eugene P. Odum had the foresight
to see that radionuclide tracers provided the means to solve many problems of
interest to ecologists. Consequently, his research included some unique radio
tracer applications at the Savannah River Plant. In addition he encouraged others
involved in ecological activities at the Savannah River Plant to do likewise.
Ecologists such as Dr. Robert C. Pendleton at the U. S. Atomic Energy Com
mission's Hanford Works applied radionuclides in their research. To these early
investigators and to those who followed we owe the oppportunity to write this
book.
In 1969 the senior author attempted a compilation of radionuclide usage
and published as a report of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission Ecological
Techniques Utilizing Radionuclides and Ionizing Radiation: A Selected Bibli
ography, which was followed by supplements in 1972 and 1979. The limited
availability of these publications, the exciting applications listed within them,
and our belief that many ecologists are largely unaware of the broad spectrum
of feasible applications stimulated us to write this book.
vii
viii Preface
Regretfully we could not describe all the applications but we have attempted
to select publications that illustrate their diversity. In addition to the cited ref
erences, we have prepared a list of additional references for each chapter. When
citing specific research applications we have attempted to paraphrase authors'
statements on methods and conclusions without attempting to evaluate the ex
perimental designs or interpretations of data. It has been impossible to do justice
to many of the applications we cite; therefore, we recommend that readers consult
the cited references for complete details.
We are extremely grateful for the cooperation we received from authors
who invested considerable effort in fulfilling our requests for original figures
from their publications, even to the extent of preparing new copies. Of the many
requests we made, only two were not acknowledged-a tribute to the cooperative
attitude of ecologists throughout the world. A. Grauby, Commissariat a I 'Energie
Atomique (France) and A. Myllymiiki, Agricultural Research Centre (Finland)
kindly furnished the material we requested but it was received too late to in
corporate within the book. Rather than acknowledge the cooperation of each
individual here, we refer the reader to citations associated with figures and tables
within the book. Others who cooperated but are not acknowledged within the
text are James D. Huber, Irene Keller, S. W. O'Rear, Larry Ragsdale, Daryl
Skraba, Michael H. Smith and Jay Story.
We appreciate the assistance of Patricia L. Schultz who typed and edited
the manuscript and that of April D. Whicker for reading page proofs.
It was a pleasure to work with the capable and efficient editors of Plenum
Press: Kirk Jensen, Sponsoring Editor; Larry Goldes, Production Editor; and
Richard Millikan, a freelance copyeditor whose remarkable editorial abilities
never failed to amaze us.
Last, but not least, we thank individuals, organizations, and publishers who
permitted us to use copyrighted material.
Vincent Schultz
F. Ward Whicker
Contents
1. Introduction
1.1. General Comments I
1.2. Relevant Literature ................................. 2
1.2. I. Proceedings and Books ..................... 2
1.2.2. Manuals ................................. 3
1.2.3. Bibliographies ............................ 4
1.2.4. Reviews ................................. 4
2. Dating Techniques
2.1. General Comments ................................. 7
2.2. Methods and Applications ........................... 8
2.2.1. Carbon-14 ............................... 8
2.2.2. Potassium-Argon.......................... 9
2.2.3. Uranium Series ........................... 9
2.2.4. Other Dating Techniques .................. 10
3. Neutron Activation
3.1. General Comments ................................ II
3.2. Applications ..................................... 13
3.2.1. Terrestrial............................... 13
3.2.2. Aquatic................................. 16
Ix
Contents
4. Autoradiography
4.1. General Comments................................ 17
4.2. Applications ..................................... 18
4.2.1. Terrestrial............................... 18
4.2.2. Aquatic................................. 23
s.
Radiation Sources and Dosimeters
5.1. General Comments ................................ 31
5.2. Radiation Sources ................................. 31
5.3. Dosimeters and Dosimetry .......................... 39
6. Behavioral Studies
6.1. General Comments ................................ 57
6.2. Invertebrates ..................................... 58
6.3. Vertebrates ...................................... 62
6.3.1. Fish.................................... 62
6.3.2. Amphibians and Reptiles .................. 68
6.3.3. Birds................................... 69
6.3.4. Mammals............................... 72
7. Hydrological Studies
7.1. General Comments 97
7.2. Sediment Movement .............................. . 97
7.3. Water Movement ............................... . 107
7.4. Soil-Moisture Determination ...................... . 111
8. Physiological Studies
8.1. General Comments 115
8.2. Terrestrial Organisms ............................ . 115
8.2.1. Plants ................................ . 115
8.2.2. Animals .............................. . 116
8.3. Aquatic Organisms .............................. . 122
8.3.1. Plants ................................ . 122
8.3.2. Animals .............................. . 123
Contents xi
9. Primary·Productivity Determination
9.1. General Comments ............................... 131
9.2. Carbon-14...................................... 131
10. Cycling Studies
10.1. General Comments ............................... 135
10.2. The Organism ................................... 137
10.2.1. Ingestion............................... 137
10.2.2. Biological Uptake and Retention ........... 147
10.2.3. Excretion .............................. 157
10.3. The Ecosystem .................................. 165
10.3.1. General Comments ...................... 165
10.3.2. The Food Web. ...... . ........... . . . . ... 170
10.3.3. The "Complete" System or Subsystem 190
11. Miscellaneous Techniques and Equipment
11.1. Environmental Pollutants .......................... 217
11.1.1. General Comments ...................... 217
11.1.2. Applications............................ 218
11.2. Sterile-Male Method of Insect Control ............... 233
11.3. Other Techniques ................................ 235
11.3.1. Terrestrial.............................. 235
11.3.2. Aquatic................................ 250
Appendix: Physical Characteristics of Radionuclides
Discussed in This Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Literature Cited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Additional Readings 281
Index ................................................ 293
1
Introduction
1.1. General Comments
Although radionuclides were used as tracers prior to the first commercial shipment
of radionuclides from Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1946, it was following
this date that extensive contributions were made to the biological and physical
sciences that utilize tracer -technologies. Today, it would be unusual for an
academic institution or a research laboratory not to utilize radionuclides to some
degree. One objective of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission in its early period
was promotion of the use of radionuclides and ionizing radiation in research and
commercial operations in the United States. The International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) assumed this responsibility internationally and is active today
in disseminating such knowledge. Undoubtedly, governmental agencies asso
ciated with all technologically advanced nations were also engaged in such
activities. We are indebted to a wide spectrum of scientists for the enormous
literature comprisingjoumal articles, textbooks, symposia proceedings, manuals,
and bibliographies on radionuclide and ionizing-radiation applications in the
sciences and industry. The history of the production of radionuclides and their
use in the United States is presented in Isotopes and Radiation Technology, Vol.
4, No.1, an issue that commemorates the 20th anniversary of the first commercial
shipment of radionuclides from Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Worldwide
activities are evident in the IAEA Proceedings Series. These contributions to the
nuclear age contain an overview of perhaps all the significant activities during
the early and current years of the nuclear age.
With the advent of textbooks and manuals prepared for courses on the
subject of tracer technology, the biological scientist has available a considerable
literature on radionuclide techniques. Among these are Arena (1971), G. D.
Chase and Rabinowitz (1962), G. D. Chase et al. (1964, 1971), Faires and Parks
(1973), Hendee (1973a), Tiwari (1974), Wang and Willis (1965), and Wolfe
(1964). In addition, a considerable number of literature reviews on the general
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