Table Of ContentClaus Grupen · Mark Rodgers
Radioactivity
and Radiation
What They Are, What They Do,
and How to Harness Them
Radioactivity and Radiation
“Radiation Protection”
c byClausGrupen
Claus Grupen Mark Rodgers
(cid:129)
Radioactivity and Radiation
What They Are, What They Do,
and How to Harness Them
123
ClausGrupen Mark Rodgers
Department ofPhysics Bluesmith Information Systems
University of Siegen Leeds
Siegen UK
Germany
ISBN978-3-319-42329-6 ISBN978-3-319-42330-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-42330-2
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016947197
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Disclaimer
This book provides an overview of radiation physics. It is intended for members
of the general public who are interested in radioactivity and radiation, and also
science enthusiasts more generally. We have tried to keep the information correct
and up-to-date. However, any reliance on such information is strictly at your own
risk. This refers to the availability of the commercial products shown and also to
thoseplaceswherewebsitesaregiven.Webaddressescanchangequiterapidly,but
we have made sure that the sites given in the text are available at the time of
printingofthisbook.Thesewebsitesarenotunderourcontrol.Wehavealsotried
to get written permission for the use of all pictures (relating to radiation detection,
radiation instruments and other topics) which are shown in this book. Not in all
cases did the companies providing such instruments or information respond to our
requestfor permission toshow their products. Ifanymaterial inthis bookisbeing
described or referred to improperly or incompletely, we would be grateful to be
informed so that we can consider this for future editions of the book.
Claus Grupen
Mark Rodgers
v
Preface
Like taxes, radioactivity has long been with us and in
increasingamounts;itisnottobehatedandfeared,but
acceptedandcontrolled.Radiationisdangerous,lettherebe
nomistakeaboutthat–butthemodernworldaboundsin
dangeroussubstancesandsituationstoonumeroustomen-
tion,…Considerradiationassomethingtobetreatedwith
respect,avoidedwhenpracticable,andacceptedwhen
inevitable.
RalphLapp1917–2004
Radiationiseverywhere.Inthisbook,weareconcernedwithionisingradiation,i.e.
radiation that can ionise ordinary atoms, such as the rays which come from
radioactive decay. Almost everything is radioactive. Radiation emerges from the
soil,itisintheair,andourplanetiscontinuouslybeingbombardedwithenergetic
cosmic radiation. Even the human body is radioactive: about 9000 decays of
unstablenuclei occur persecond inanormal human body.Inthe early daysofthe
Earth, when our planet formed from the debris of the early solar system, the
radiation level was much higher. It is possible that the origin, development and
biodiversity of life have been positively influenced by ionising radiation.
Since the early twentieth century, mankind has been able to artificially create
radioactive nuclei: particularly so since the discovery of nuclear fission in the late
1930s. As early as 1905, Pierre Curie remarked that radium in the hands of
criminals could be a disaster. Also, Louis de Broglie noted in his Nobel lecture in
1927 that he did not know whether science in the hands of humans is a good or a
badthing.ThebombingofHiroshimaandNagasakiin1945withnuclearweapons
clearlydemonstrated the disastrous effect of ionising radiation. The Nobel laureate
for medicine, Maurice H.F. Wilkins, said contemplatively: “We have now reached
the point where it is an open question as to whether doing more science is a good
thing”. The nuclear accidents near Harrisburg at the Three Mile Island reactor
(1979), in Chernobyl (1986), Tokaimura (1999) and Fukushima (2011) clearly
demonstrated that nuclear fission requires high-quality safety systems.
vii
viii Preface
It is in the nature of humans to try to further our understanding of the world
around us. No law will stop people undertaking research which might carry them
into new domains, and there will always be a risk that a new technology will be
misused. Therefore, it is important to understand the results of research and to
explaintheadvantagesandpossibleriskstoeverybodywhoisinterested.Thereare
of course great benefits to be gained from nuclear energy and ionising radiation,
particularly in (fission) power plants and in nuclear medicine (both diagnosis and
therapy). Also nuclear fusion, the energy source of the stars, may well solve all of
mankind’s energy problems in less than a century.
The use and abuse of radiation concerns, among others, physicists, engineers,
lawyers and healthcare professionals, as well as the general public. Everyone
shouldbeabletojudgeontheapplicationofradioactivityinvariousfieldshimself
without referring to experts.
This book was originally published as a longer, more technical volume called
Introduction to Radiation Protection. That book itself originated from a series of
lectures that one of the authors (C.G.) gave over a period of more than 40 years.
ThetextwasfirstpublishedinGermanbyViewegandupdatedlaterineditionsby
Springer. It has also been translated into English and Japanese. A translation into
Turkish is in preparation.
This book would not have been possible without the help of a large number of
people. In particular, the help of Dr. Tilo Stroh and Dr. Ulrich Werthenbach was
invaluableinthecreationoftheearlierversions.WethankDr.CorneliusGrupenfor
injectingideasforthebook,particularlyonthestructureofthematerial.Inaddition,
M.R.wouldliketothankhiswifeClareforherhelpandencouragement,andC.G.
wants tothank his wife Heidemarie for hercontinuous support and patience.
Theaimofthismoreaccessiblebookistosimplifythecomplicatedphysicsand
mathematicsoftheoriginalversionsothatinterestedmembersofthepublicwillbe
able tojudge onpossibledangers ofionising radiation.Thereisoften an antipathy
and distrust when ionising radiation is discussed. Occasionally this distrust is jus-
tified, especially when irresponsible discharges of radioactive waste into the
environment are concerned. However, we are surrounded by radiation from many
differentsources,especiallyfromthenaturalenvironment:thefoodthatweeatand
theairthatwebreathearetoacertainextentradioactive.Thisunavoidableradiation
servesasagoodstartingpointforcomparisonwhendiscussingadditionalradiation
from technical installations, and we can keep in mind that most of the additional
radiation results from diagnostics and therapy in medicine.
We have tried to make the field of radioactivity accessible to the layman with
illustrations and examples that hopefully appeal to general experience. The aim of
thisbookistoimprovetheunderstandingofthebasicsofradioactivityandtoassess
the radiation risks in comparison to the risks that we are used to taking every day
without any consideration.
Claus Grupen (Siegen, Germany)
and Mark Rodgers (Leeds, UK), October 2016
Contents
1 Why Should I Read This Book?.... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 1
2 What Are Radioactivity and Radiation?. .... .... .... ..... .... 7
2.1 Radioactivity.. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 11
2.2 Activity and Half-Life ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 17
2.3 Radiation Doses ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 18
2.3.1 Weighting Factors. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 20
2.3.2 Avoiding Doses... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 23
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 24
Putting doses in context .. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 25
3 What Does Radiation Do? .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 27
3.1 Interactions of Charged Particles ... .... .... .... ..... .... 27
3.2 Interactions of Neutrons .. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 31
3.3 Interactions of Photons... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 32
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 35
4 How Can We Make Radiation?.... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 37
4.1 Charged Particle Sources . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 37
4.2 Photon Sources.... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 39
4.3 Neutron Sources... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 41
4.4 Cosmic-Ray Sources..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 42
4.5 Medical Applications .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 43
4.6 Radioisotope Batteries ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 47
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 48
5 What Are X Rays? . .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 49
5.1 Medical X Rays ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 52
5.2 X-Ray Crystallography... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 54
5.3 Inspection and Quality Control Systems.. .... .... ..... .... 54
5.4 X Rays in Art. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 56
5.5 Sources of Unwanted X Rays.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 56
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 59
ix
x Contents
6 Is Radioactivity Everywhere?.. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 61
6.1 Cosmic Rays.. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 62
6.2 Terrestrial Radiation..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 64
6.3 Incorporation of Radioisotopes. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 65
6.4 Radiation Exposures from Technical Installations... ..... .... 67
6.5 Specific Environmental Exposures .. .... .... .... ..... .... 70
6.5.1 Exposures from Air Travel .. .... .... .... ..... .... 71
6.5.2 Exposures from Smoking ... .... .... .... ..... .... 73
6.5.3 Exposures from Water.. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 75
6.5.4 Questionable Applications in Medicine. .... ..... .... 75
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 78
7 What Does Radiation Do to Us? ... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 79
7.0.1 Early Effects ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 79
7.0.2 Delayed Radiation Damage.. .... .... .... ..... .... 81
7.0.3 Genetic Damage .. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 83
7.1 Radiosensitivity ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 83
7.2 Decorporation. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 84
7.3 Non-Human Organisms .. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 86
7.4 Radiation-Absorbing Fungi.... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 87
7.5 Radiation Risk Factors ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 88
7.6 Low Radiation Doses.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 89
7.7 Eradication of Insect Pests .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 91
7.8 Metabolism of Plutonium. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 92
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 93
8 How Can We Use Radioactivity Productively?.... .... ..... .... 95
8.1 Nuclear Fission Reactors . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 97
8.2 Fusion Reactors ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 103
8.2.1 Inertial Fusion.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 106
8.2.2 Fusion by Magnetic Confinement. .... .... ..... .... 107
8.3 The First Nuclear Reactor. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 110
8.4 Natural Nuclear Reactors . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 111
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 113
9 How Can We Use Radioactivity Destructively?.... .... ..... .... 115
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 121
10 What Happens When It Goes Wrong? .. .... .... .... ..... .... 123
10.1 Smaller-Scale Radiation Incidents... .... .... .... ..... .... 130
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 132
11 What About Non-Ionising Radiation?... .... .... .... ..... .... 133
11.1 Microwaves .. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 136
11.2 Ultraviolet Light... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 139
11.3 Lasers... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 141
Summary.. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 142
