Radiation and Particle Detectors: International School of Physics 'Enrico Fermi'

203 Pages·2010·6.471 MB·English

by  S. Bertolucci, U. Bottigli, P. Oliva

SOCIETA` ITALIANA DI FISICA
RENDICONTI
DELLA
SCUOLA INTERNAZIONALE DI FISICA
“ENRICO FERMI”
CLXXV Corso
a cura di S. Bertolucci e U. Bottigli
Direttori del Corso
e di
P. Oliva
VARENNA SUL LAGO DI COMO
VILLA MONASTERO
20 – 25 Luglio 2009
Rivelatori per radiazione
e particelle
2010
SOCIETA` ITALIANA DI FISICA
BOLOGNA-ITALY
ITALIAN PHYSICAL SOCIETY
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF PHYSICS
“ENRICO FERMI”
Course CLXXV
edited by S. Bertolucci and U. Bottigli
Directors of the Course
and
P. Oliva
VARENNA ON LAKE COMO
VILLA MONASTERO
20 – 25 July 2009
Radiation and Particle
Detectors
2010
AMSTERDAM, OXFORD, TOKIO, WASHINGTON DC
Copyright (cid:2)c 2010 by Societa` Italiana di Fisica
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISSN 0074-784X (print)
ISSN 1879-8195 (online)
ISBN 978-1-60750-630-0 (print) (IOS)
ISBN 978-1-60750-631-7 (online) (IOS)
ISBN 978-88-7438-058-9 (SIF)
LCCN 2010934193
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INDICE
S. Bertolucci, U. Bottigli and P. Oliva – Preface ................ pag. XI
Gruppo fotografico dei partecipanti al Corso .......................... XVI
P. Oliva – Detectors for medical physics............................. XIX
G. A. P. Cirrone, G. Cuttone, F. Di Rosa, P. Lojacono, V. Mon-
gelli, S. Pittera, L. M. Valastro, S. Lo Nigro, L. Raffaele, V.
Salamone, M. G. Sabini, R. Cirio and F. Marchetto – Detectors for
hadrontherapy ................................................... 1
1. Introduction.................................................... 2
2. Irradiationconfiguration.......................................... 2
.
21. Absolute dose determination: beam calibration.................. 2
.
22. Depth dose distribution ..................................... 3
.
23. Lateral dose distribution..................................... 3
3. Detectors for relative dosimetry.................................... 3
.
31. Depth dose reference detectors................................ 3
.
32. Reference detectors for transversal dose ........................ 3
4. Relative detectors ............................................... 4
.
41. Natural and CVD diamond .................................. 4
.
42. Termoluminescencedetectors (TLD)........................... 4
.
43. MOSFET dosimetry ........................................ 5
.
44. MOPI .................................................... 8
5. Conclusions .................................................... 8
P. A. Mando` – Detection setups in applications of accelerator-based tech-
niques to the analysis of Cultural Heritage............................ 11
Introduction: Why Science for CulturalHeritage?........................ 11
Ion Beam Analysis (IBA) ............................................ 12
Quantitative PIXE .............................................. 14
PIXE external beam setups ....................................... 21
External scanning microbeams..................................... 25
Measurement of beam current ..................................... 26
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry(AMS) ................................. 27
VII
indice
VIII
G. Gaudio, M. Livan and R. Wigmans – The art of calorimetry....... pag. 31
1. Introduction.................................................... 31
2. The physics of shower development................................. 32
.
21. Electromagnetic showers..................................... 32
.
22. Hadronic showers........................................... 36
.
23. Lessons for calorimetry...................................... 39
3. The calorimeter response function.................................. 41
.
31. Absolute response and response ratios ......................... 41
.
32. Compensation ............................................. 45
.
33. Fluctuations............................................... 47
.
34. The shape of the response function ............................ 52
.
35. Lessons for calorimeter design ................................ 55
4. The future of calorimetry ......................................... 57
.
41. The energy flow method ..................................... 58
.
42. Off-line compensation ....................................... 58
.
43. Dual-readout calorimetry .................................... 59
5. The DREAM project ............................................ 60
.
51. Measurement of the neutron fraction .......................... 64
.
52. Dual-readout with crystals ................................... 67
.
52.1. Lead tungstatecrystals................................ 69
.
52.2. Doped PbWO4 crystals ............................... 71
.
52.3. BGO crystals........................................ 72
.
53. Combined calorimetry....................................... 74
6. Outlook ....................................................... 76
M. Mulders – The CMS detector .................................. 79
1. Introduction.................................................... 79
2. The CMS detector............................................... 80
3. Precise mapping of the central CMS magnetic field using probes ........ 84
4. Precisemappingof theCMS magneticfield in the yoke using cosmicmuons 86
5. Other commissioning results with cosmic muons from CRAFT .......... 93
6. First CMS physics measurement with cosmic muons................... 94
7. Observation of the first beam-inducedmuons ........................ 99
8. Prospects for first physics with collisions ............................ 101
9. Summary and conclusion ......................................... 101
J.MarquefortheVirgoCollaboration–Agravitationalwavedetector:
The Virgo interferometer .......................................... 105
1. Gravitationalwaves (GWs) ....................................... 106
.
11. First evidence.............................................. 106
.
12. Sources of gravitationalwaves ................................ 106
.
13. Compact binaries........................................... 107
.
14. Supernovae................................................ 107
.
15. Pulsar .................................................... 107
.
16. Stochastic background ...................................... 107
.
17. Using gravitationalwaves to study the universe ................. 108
indice
IX
2. The Virgo experiment............................................ pag. 108
.
21. The Virgo project .......................................... 108
.
22. Gravitational-wavesstrength and polarization................... 108
.
23. The Michelson interferometer................................. 109
.
24. Sensitivity requirement...................................... 109
.
25. Ground vibrations .......................................... 109
.
26. Superattenuator............................................ 110
.
27. The laser.................................................. 111
.
28. The amplifier and Pre-Mode Cleaner .......................... 111
.
29. Electro-optic modulators .................................... 111
.
210. Beam geometry fluctuations.................................. 111
.
211. Input Mode Cleaner cavity................................... 112
.
212. Frequency noise ............................................ 112
.
213. The Faraday isolator........................................ 112
.
214. Residual gas............................................... 113
.
215. The mirrors ............................................... 113
.
216. The coatings............................................... 113
.
217. Thermal noise ............................................. 113
.
218. Thermal lensing compensation................................ 113
.
219. Shot noise................................................. 113
.
220. Optical scheme............................................. 114
.
221. Controls .................................................. 114
3. Other gravitationalwaves detectors ................................ 115
.
31. Resonant-massdetectors..................................... 115
.
32. The LIGO detectors ........................................ 116
.
33. The GEO detector.......................................... 116
.
34. Space interferometers ....................................... 116
.
35. Pulsar timing.............................................. 116
4. Performances of gravitationalwaves detectors ........................ 117
.
41. Resonant-massdetectors..................................... 117
.
42. Horizon................................................... 117
.
43. Duty cycle ................................................ 119
5. Future challenges................................................ 119
.
51. Future of ground-basedinterferometers......................... 119
.
52. Advanced Virgo............................................ 120
.
53. Some limitations ........................................... 120
.
54. Future beams.............................................. 120
.
55. Quantum noise............................................. 121
.
56. Gravity gradient noise....................................... 121
.
57. Einstein Telescope.......................................... 121
6. Conclusion ..................................................... 121
G. Riccobene and P. Sapienza – Underwater/ice high-energy neutrino
telescopes ....................................................... 123
1. The Cosmic-Rayspectrum ........................................ 124
2. The high-energygamma-neutrinoconnection......................... 128
3. High-energyneutrino detection .................................... 131
4. Underwater/ice Cˇerenkov technique ................................ 133
indice
X
.
41. Sources of background....................................... pag. 138
5. Status of neutrino telescope projects................................ 140
.
51. Baikal .................................................... 140
.
52. AMANDA ................................................ 142
.
53. IceCube................................................... 142
.
54. NESTOR ................................................. 146
.
55. ANTARES ................................................ 148
.
56. NEMO ................................................... 150
. 3
57. KM3NeT: towards a km scale detector in the Mediterranean Sea .. 153
6. Ultra High Energy neutrino detection............................... 156
.
61. The thermo-acoustictechnique ............................... 156
7. Conclusions .................................................... 161
Elenco dei partecipanti ............................................ 167