Table Of ContentStudies in Environmental Science 17
QUALITY OF G ROU N D W ATER
Proceedings of an International Symposium, Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands,
23-27 March 1981
Edited by
W. van Duijvenbooden
P. Glasbergen
and
H. van Lelyveld
National Institute for Water Supply, P.O. Box 150, 2260 AD Leidschendam,
The Netherlands
A selection of these papers has been published as a special volume of
The Science of the Total Environment, Volume 21, 1981
ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY
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XIX
PREFACE
Intensification and expansion of human activities are the causes of an increased
dispersion of polluting substances into soil and groundwater. In recent years pro-
gressively more hazardous substances have appeared among the pollutants. As a result
the quality of groundwater in many instances has steadily deteriorated, with severe
consequences for the use of water for several purposes, especially for drinking water
Looking at these problems and observing the intensification of research in the field
of groundwater quality, it is important to stimulate the exchange of information
between researchers and legislative and executive authorities. Therefore, the Natio-
nal Institute for Water Supply, which forms part of the Ministery of Health and En-
vironmental Protection, decided to organize the ISQG.
The organization of the symposium was made possible by the active support of
several international organizations. Well known scientists and legislative and
executive authorities agreed to serve on the Advisory Board, which consisted of the
following members:
G. Castany, President of the I.A.H., Bourg-la-Reiner France
H.J. Colenbrander, International Association of Hydrological Sciences, The Hague,
The Netherlands
J.C. van Dam, University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
G.B. Engelen, Free University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
J.J. Fried, Consultant to the Commission of the European Communities,
Strasbourg, France
F.A.M. de Haan, Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
L. Huisman, University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
L.F. Konikow, United States Department of the Interior, Geological Survey,
Reston, V.A., United States of America
G. Matthess, University of Kiel, Federal Republic of Germany
E. Romijn, .International Association of Hydrogeologists and International
Association of Hydrological Sciences (National Committee),
Arnhem, The Netherlands
P. Santema, National Institute for Water Supply, Voorburg, The Netherlands
(chairman)
M.J. Suess, World Health Organization, Copenhagen, Denmark
P.J. Verkerk, Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection, Leidschendam,
The Netherlands
xx
W.B. Wilkinson, Water Research Centre, Medmenham, united Kingdom
D.A. Zeilmaker, Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection, Leidschendam,
The Netherlands
The Organizing Committee, after consulting the Advisory Board, aimed at a sympo-
sium programme covering a relatively wide field. The programme was divided into the
following topics:
topic 1 Effects of diffuse polluting sources, land use and precipita-
tion
topic 2 Effects of local polluting sources
topic 3 Subsurface waste disposal and deep-well injection
topic 4 Hazardous pollutants in subsoil
topic 5 Collection and interpretation of data
topic 6 Development of models
topic 7 Criteria and methods for protection of groundwater quality
The Organizing Committee has attempted to attract internationally known scientists
for the different topics to be discussed. During the symposium the topics were divided
into general, specialist, parallel and poster sessions. The general and specialist
sessions were chaired by the following persons:
topic 1 J. Vrba, Stavebni Geologie, Prague, Czechoslovakia
topic 2 G. Matthess, University of Kiel, Fed. Republic of Germany
topic 3 J. Vecchioli, U.S. Geological Survey, Tallahassee, U.S.A.
topic 4 B.C.J. Zoeteman, National Institute for Water Supply, Voorburg,
The Netherlands
topic 5 W.B. Wilkinson. Water Research Centre, Medmenham, United
Kingdom
topic 6 J.J. Fried, Universite Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France
topic 7 R.V. Blau, Department Water and Energy Management, Canton
Berne, Ostermundigen, Switzerland
The parallel sessions were chaired by the following persons:
C. van den Akker, Municipal Waterworks of Amsterdam, The Netherlands (topic 6)
G. Castany, President of the I.A.H., France (topic 5 and 6)
H.J. Colenbrander, International Association of Hydrological Sciences, The Hague,
The Netherlands (topic 5)
K.J. Edworthy, Water Research Centre, Medmenham, United Kingdom (topic 2)
M.P. Henton. Forth River Purification Board, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,
(topic 1)
L.F. Konikow, United States Department of the Interior, Geological Survey,
j
Reston, V.A., U.S.A. (topic 6)
V. Neumayr, Institut fur Wasser-, Boden- und Lufthygiene des Bundesgesund- i~
heitsamtes, Berlin, Fed. Republic of Germany (topic 4)
G.J. Piet, National Institute for Water Supply, Voorburg, The Nether-
lands (topic 4)
E. Romijn, Provincial Waterboard, Gelderland, Arnhem, The Netherlands
(topic 1 and 7)
C.J. Swinnerton, Wessex Water Authority, Bristol, United Kingdom (topic 7)
C.P. Young, Water Research Centre, Medmenham, United Kingdom (topic 2 and
5)
The enthousiastic participation in and contribution to the symposium of chairmen
and speakers as well as participants conduced considerably to the success of the
symposium.
We trust that this volume, containing the papers presented during the symposium
in the various sessions, will be useful as a review of the present knowledge con-
cerning the quality of groundwater and that it will stimulate further research.
The symposium organizers acknowledge the following sponsoring organizations:
UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza-
tion,
WHO World Health Organization,
EC Commission of the European Communities,
IAH International Association of Hydrogeologists,
IAHS International Association of Hydrological Sciences,
UNO Department of Technical Cooperation for DeveloDment.
The Organizing Committee,
W. van Dui jvenbooden (chairman)
P. Glasbergen
H. van Lelyveld
J.C. van den Toorn
xxv
OPENING ADDRESS
DR. L. GINJAAR
Minister of Health and Environmental Protection, Leidschendam, The Netherlands
Ladies and gentlemen,
In the holy books of all world reliqions water is described as a source of life, for
although water can often be a carrier of diseases and death, there would be no life
on earth without it. Groundwater is one of the most important sources of water SUDD~Y,
for human life as well as vegetation and animals. The quality of qroundwater is there-
fore of the utmost importance.
Groundwater is generally considered to be a safer source of drinking water than
surface water. But groundwater can be contaminated by bacteria and has often caused
epidemics, sometimes with a high death toll. Some thirty years ago, an examination
of 1,400 private wells in rural areas in the Netherlands showed that nearly 50% were
contaminated by bacteria. It is obvious that protection areas around groundwater
pumping stations were originally intended to Drevent the contamination of groundwater
by bacteria.
Since the industrial revolution in the 19th century, chemical pollution, although
not directly identified as such, has become equallv serious, and the fact that it
could affect the quality of groundwater was not recoqnized until very recently, as
the human senses cannot easily detect qroundwater pollution and the means of identi-
fying the chemical substances and detectina relatively low levels of pollution in
groundwater were limited.
In addition there was a lack of familiarity with the health risks of most pollutants
and their behaviour in the soil.
Until some ten years ago data on groundwater quality were scarcely available
except on the 'macro-compounds'. Since macro-compounds may also be naturally present
in qroundwater, even in very high concentrations, pollution, especially if it were
of a diffuse nature, could not easily be identified. Iqnorance of local hydro-
geoloqical conditions frequently caused a wrong choice of location for monitoring
wells, producing over-optimistic and even wronq conclusions. A recent evaluation of
data on qroundwater quality led to the conclusion that groundwater quality is
gradually deterioratinq.
Today, soil and groundwater pollution are widely recognized as a major environ-
mental problem. The first indications of the magnitude of the problem of the contami-
nation of groundwaters in the Netherlands,especially by organic microDollutants, were
obtained in 1977. That year several cases of trichloroethylene contamination of
groundwaters destined for drinking water were discovered by the National Institute
for Water Supply. Subsequently a more systematic investigation of groundwaters used
for public water supply revealed a limited number of other severe cases of Dollution
with organohalogen cmpounds. In one case a pumpina station was temporarily closed
down. At other pumping stations organohalogens were detected in low concentrations.
More recent data indicate a wide distribution of organohalogen compounds in the soil
and in the upper strata of groundwater. Organohalogens have been detected in 90% of
the water samples examined by the Dutch national qroundwater quality monitoring net-
work; in 16% of cases even in concentrations hiqher than 1 microgramme per liter.
Studies commissioned by my ministry also indicated relatively high concentrations
of volatile aromatics like benzene, toluene and xylenes in percolate and groundwaters
surrounding household waste disDosal sites.
Most of you will have heard of one of the worst cases of soil and qroundwater
pollution in this country. The name of the unfortunate village has become a catchword:
Lekkerkerk. The Lekkerkerk affair has drawn a lot of public attention to soil and
groundwater pollution in the Netherlands. Chemical wastes had been dumped in ditches,
to prepare the land for a buildinq site. The wastes penetrated the shallow ground-
waters and in some cases plastic pipes used for drinkinq water sumlies. It also
created a foul smell under the floors of a number of houses, and even in the houses
themselves. A recent national survey in this country localised more than 4,000 sites
where soil and groundwater may already be nolluted by hazardous wastes. Many of these
sites are situated in the catchment areas of qroundwater pumping stations for Dublic
water supply and they include disposal sites for household wastes, Dotentially
hazardous wastes, hazardous waste dumps and contaminated industrial and transshipment
areas. Accidental spills can also cause problems. The cost of purification of the
most severe cases, at some 350 sites, is estimated at half a billion dollars.
One must realize that, owing to their qenerally very low flow-velocities ground-
waters once contaminated will often remain so for many qenerations. Moreover, it is
often difficult to trace and to eliminate contaminated groundwater from local pollu-
ting sources. Thus even after a loco1 site has been cleaned up, polluted groundwater
from the site can still continue to influence the quality of qroundwater at a water
supply station for a very lonq period.
Installing a monitoring network without solid knowledqe of local hydroqeoloqical con-
ditions and location of disposal sites cannot guarantee a timely warning system. At
the same time, ignorance of the complex behaviour and character of many chemicals
XXVll
hampers detection and proper removal of the compounds from groundwater. Predicting the
long-term effects of pollution also poses problems.
The great abundance of sites with potentially hazardous waste in the Netherlands,
demands that priorities be set for purification. It is a matter of great urgency that
criteria for these priorities should be worked out and a great deal of time will be
needed for research. The development of quick field-survey systams would seem useful
in this context.
Government directives are necessary to further protect soil and groundwater against
pollution and to clean up existing sites containing hazardous waste or contaminated
waters. After legislation has been passed in the Netherlands on the quality of air,
surface water and noise the next great step towards environmental control will be
legislation on soil and groundwater quality.
National legislation on the handling of solid and hazardous wastes is already in force,
and a new 'Soil and Groundwater Protection Bill' has been submitted to Parliament,
which, when into forced will give national directives concerning the protection of
soil and groundwater against pollution, including purification in severe cases.
This bill comprises the whole subject of soil and groundwater protection. The passing
of the bill through Parliament will therefore take some time. The purification of the
most severe cases of soil pollution cannot wait that long. The Government shall there-
fore submit within a few weeks an emergency 'Soil Purification Bill' to Parliament.
This bill provides rules and means for the planning and execution of a purification
programme at short term. The most severe cases of soil pollution are those threatening
public health or the supply of groundwater. It is expected that these can be solved
under this purification programme within the next three or four years. The intention
is to start the purification of the fifteen most urgent cases this year.
on the international level, the Council of the European Community has recently
issued Directives on pollution caused by certain dangerous substances discharged into
groundwater, which limit the disposal of many hazardous substances in soil and
groundwater.
The efforts and activities of the United Nations, the World Health Organisation,
the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECDI, 'theE uropean Community
and the work of many governmental organisations and international scientific bodies
such as the International Association of Hydrogeoloqists and the International Associ-
ation of Hydrological Sciences are also worthy of note. With reqard to problems of
special interest to developing countries I would also mention the activities within
the framework of the 'International Decade on Water Supply and Sanitation', otherwise
known as the U.N. Water Decade, which started in 1980. The purpose of the decade is
XXVl I I
to ensure a proper water supply and sanitary facilities for everyone throughout the
world. The Netherlands government has promised to contribute and the involvement of
the National Institute for Water Supply in water supply projects in developing coun-
tries will therefore increase. The International Reference Centre for Community
Water Supply also carries out valuable work in this field.
Obviously much research is still necessary on many aspects of groundwater pollu-
tion. There is a far greater need than before for skilled scientists in the field of
groundwater pollution, for well-equipped laboratories and field survey services and
for people to apply research results. Personal exchanges of information in an inter-
national atmosphere are considered essential to success. To ensure that research
efforts achieve their objectives, close cooperation and contacts must be promoted
between researchers and those who apply the results.
This international symposium should offer an appropriate platform by stimulating the
exchange of information and facilitating personal contacts.
Considering the many fundamental questions we are all facing, I am eager to hear
the recommendations which will be presented during the closing session of this sympo-
sium by Prof. L. Huisman. They may be helpful in the process of improving existing
policies or developing new ones. Looking ahead, I sincerely hope this symposium will
contribute to an improvement in the quality of groundwater and will lead to a situa-
tion in which groundwater can retain its qualification as a source of high-quality
drinking water.
I hereby declare this international symposium on the quality of groundwater open
and wish you a very successful meeting.
XXlll
WELCOME SPEECH
P. SANTEMA
Director of the National Institute for Water Supply, Voorburq, The Netherlands.
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Welcome to this International Symposium on the Quality of Groundwater, organised by
the Netherlands' National Institute for Water Supply and sponsored by a number of
international organisations.
A special word of welcome to Dr. L. Ginjaar, Netherlands' Minister of Health and
Environmental Protection who within a few minutes will officially open this sympo-
sium, to the representatives of the EC, WHO, UNESCO, the International Association
of Hydrological Sciences, the International Association of Hydrogeology and to the
members of the Advisory Board.
In the next few days we will be here together with about 300 participants and
about 20 accompanying persons from 36 countries, which makes this symposium
really an international event. In snite of the fact that the funds for international
travel in most countries are becoming scarce, about 60 persons from 18 countries out-
side Europe still succeeded in makinq the necessary arranqements for participation
and amonq these are 23 persons from 13 developinq countries. Ye are indeed very happy
that the symposium received such large international attention, and in particular
we are happy that a fair number of representatives from developina countries are
present, because it is of great importance that the costly mistakes in the field of
groundwater pollution which have been made in the industrialized world can be avoided
in the developing countries.
The organising committee with the valuable assistance of the Advisory Board and,
last but not least, with the cooperation of the numerous authors, succeeded in making
up an interesting but rather full programme in which in 20 sessions, covering 7 topics,
more than 120 papers will be presented; in addition to this there will be more than
40 poster presentations. In view of these larqe numbers and in view of the fact that
various activities will take place simultaneously, you are strongly advised to study
-
the programme - which is in your papers carefully, and to make a plan of the
activities you wish to attend. In particular I wish to draw your attention to the
pages 4 to 6 where you will find much information in a condensed form. Furthermore,
