Pyroelectric Materials: Infrared Detectors, Particle Accelerators, and Energy Harvesters

202 Pages·2013·5.43 MB·English

by  A. K. Batra and M. D. Aggarwal

SPIE PRESS
This monograph contains comprehensive information on pyroelectric materials and
their preparation, properties, and applications, such as uncooled wideband infrared
detectors, particle generators, and ambient energy harvesters. The complete lifecycle
of a pyroelectric material is presented here for readers—from the theory of operation,
to structure, processing, and applications—providing a cohesive overview of essential
concepts, including the theoretical background and current developments in the field
of pyroelectric devices. The book describes the preparation, structure, properties, and
figures of merit for practical pyroelectric materials such as triglycine sulfate, lead
zirconate titanate, lithium tantalate, lithium niobate, barium strontium titanate, lead
magnesium niobate-lead titanate, polyvinylidene fluoride, zinc oxide, and others,
including the merits and demerits of their use in devices.
P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, WA 98227-0010
ISBN: 9780819493316
SPIE Vol. No.: PM231

Bellingham, Washington USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Batra, A. K.
Pyroelectricmaterials:infrareddetectors,particleacceleratorsandenergyharvesters/
A.K. Batra, M.D. Aggarwal.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8194-9331-6 ISBN 978-0-8194-9332-3 ISBN 978-0-8194-9333-0
1. Pyroelectric detectors Materials. 2. Thermoelectric apparatus and appliances
Design and construction. I. Aggarwal, M. D. II. Title.
QC338.5.P95B38 2013
620.1'9 dc23
2013014472
Published by
SPIE
P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA
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Fax: [phone]
Email: [email protected]
www.spie.org
Copyright © 2013 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher.
Thecontentofthisbookreflectstheworkandthoughtoftheauthor(s).Everyefforthas
beenmadetopublishreliableandaccurateinformationherein,butthepublisherisnot
responsible for the validity of the information or for any outcomes resulting from
reliance thereon.
Printed in the United States of America
First printing

Table of Contents
Foreword ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Glossary of Symbols and Abbreviations xv
1 Fundamentals of Pyroelectric Materials 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of Dielectric Materials 1
1.3 Important Dielectric Parameters 5
1.3.1 Electric dipole moment 5
1.3.2 Polar and nonpolar dielectric materials 5
1.3.3 Electric polarization 5
1.3.4 Electric displacement or flux density D, dielectric
constant :, and electric susceptibility (cid:1) 6
1.3.5 Spontaneous polarization 6
1.4 Electrostrictive Effect 7
1.5 Piezoelectric Phenomena 7
1.6 Pyroelectric Phenomenon 9
1.6.1 Pyroelectric current generation 11
1.7 Ferroelectric Phenomena 14
1.7.1 Ferroelectric domains 14
1.7.2 Ferroelectric hysteresis 14
1.7.3 Poling 15
1.7.4 Paraelectric effect 16
1.8 Conclusions 16
References 16
2 Pyroelectric IR Detectors 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 IR Fundamentals 19
2.3 IR Detectors 21
2.4 Pyroelectric IR Detectors 22
2.4.1 IR-detector operation 22
v
vi TableofContents
2.4.2 Pyroelectric-detector responsivity 24
2.4.3 Noise-equivalent power 26
2.4.4 Detectivity 27
2.4.5 Noise 28
2.5 Material Performance Parameters 29
2.5.1 Material figures of merit 30
2.6 Structural Design 30
2.6.1 Characteristics of absorbers 31
2.6.2 Single-element detector design 32
2.6.3 Thin-film-based detectors 34
2.6.4 Hybrid focal-plane arrays 35
2.6.5 Monolith-integrated focal-plane array 35
2.6.6 Advanced lithium-tantalate-detector array 36
2.6.7 Trap detector 37
2.6.8 Resonant detector 38
™
2.6.9 Srico TFLT detector 39
2.7 Pyroelectric-Detector Applications 41
2.8 Conclusions 42
References 42
3 Processing of Key Pyroelectric Materials 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Bulk Single Crystals 47
3.2.1 Growth of crystals from solution 47
3.2.2 Crystal growth from melt 48
3.3 Preparation of Ceramics 50
3.4 Thin-Film Deposition 51
3.4.1 Nonsolution deposition 51
3.4.1.1 Sputtering technique 51
3.4.1.2 Laser-ablation technique 52
3.4.1.3 Chemical-vapor-deposition technique 52
3.4.2 Solution deposition 54
3.4.2.1 Sol-gel technique 54
3.4.2.2 Metalorganic-deposition technique 55
3.5 Thick-Film Fabrication 59
3.5.1 Thick-film-transfer technology (screen printing) 59
3.6 Fabrication of Polymer–Ceramic Composite Precursors 60
References 62
4 Important Pyroelectrics: Properties and Performance Parameters 65
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Important Pyroelectrics 65
4.2.1 Triglycine sulfate crystals and their isomorphs 65
4.2.2 Modified lead titanate 69
TableofContents vii
4.2.3 Lead zirconate titanate 72
4.2.4 Lithium tantalate and lithium niobate 78
4.2.5 Barium strontium titanate materials system 81
4.2.6 Strontium barium niobate 84
4.2.7 Lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT) 85
4.3 Organic Pyroelectrics 86
4.4 Pyroelectric–Polymer Composites 87
4.5 Other Pyroelectric Materials 91
4.5.1 Aluminum nitride (AlN) 91
4.5.2 Gallium nitride (GaN) 92
4.5.3 Zinc oxide (ZnO) 92
4.6 Lead-free Pyroelectric Ceramics 93
4.7 Conclusions 93
References 94
5 Innovative Techniques for Pyroelectric IR Detectors 105
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Multilayer Structures 105
5.3 Compositionally Graded Structures 107
5.4 Pyroelectric Heterostructures 109
5.5 Use of Nanoporosity 112
5.6 Novel Designs and Techniques 113
5.7 Conclusions 118
References 118
6 Pyroelectric Particle Generators 121
6.1 Introduction 121
6.2 Electrostatistics of a Pyroelectric Accelerator 122
6.2.1 One-crystal system 122
6.2.2 Two-crystal system 123
6.3 D–D Nuclear Fusion and Neutron Generators 125
6.4 Electron and Ion Emitters 129
6.5 X-ray Generators 129
6.6 Applications 131
6.7 Conclusions 131
References 131
7 Pyroelectric Energy Harvesting 135
7.1 Introduction 135
7.2 Energy Transfer 136
7.2.1 Ferroelectric effect 137
7.2.2 Paraelectric effect 138
7.2.3 Phase transitions 138
7.2.4 Pyroelectric performance 139
viii TableofContents
7.3 Thermodynamic Cycles for Pyroelectric Energy Conversion 139
7.3.1 Heat and work fundamentals 140
7.3.2 Pyroelectric energy harvesting efficiency 143
7.3.3 Carnot cycle for polarization–electric field (PE) cycles 144
7.3.4 Ericsson cycle for the PE cycle 145
7.3.5 Lenoir cycle for the PE cycle 146
7.3.6 Pyroelectric energy conversion based on the
Clingman cycle 147
7.3.7 Pyroelectric energy conversion based on the
Olsen cycle 148
7.4 Pyroelectric Energy Conversion and Harvesting: Recent Progress 150
7.4.1 Pyroelectric energy harvesting based on the direct
pyroelectric effect 150
7.4.2 Pyroelectric energy harvesting based on thermodynamic
cycles 163
7.5 Conclusions 168
References 169
Appendix Major Pyroelectric Manufacturing Companies 175
Index 177
Foreword
Materials have played a revolutionary role in the development of the modern
technological age, and their various applications have made our lives
increasingly comfortable here on our home, the beautiful blue planet Earth.
With the application of heat, pyroelectric materials produce electric current,
qualifying them for use in uncooled infrared detectors. Infrared detectors are
encounteredinavastnumberofapplicationsinbothwarandpeace.Manyof
their uses are routine to us in everyday life—for example, the pyroelectric
intruderswitch-cum-sensoristhekeytomostdomesticburglaralarmsystems.
With the advent of new technologies, thermal sensing and imaging have
become useful diagnostic tools for medical, industrial, and military
applications. In medicine, infrared thermal imaging is applied to detect
vascular disorders and arthritic rheumatisms as well as to monitor muscular
performancesandmakepreclinicaldiagnosesofbreastcancer.Recently,these
materialshavebeenusedinnuclearparticlegeneration,andtheirusefulnessin
energy harvesting is currently under exploration.
This monograph is the work of Drs. A. K. Batra and M. D. Aggarwal,
two of the most prolific scholars and accomplished researchers in the field.
Both have significantly contributed to the advancement of knowledge in
pyroelectric materials. We are fortunate to have their expertise as part of the
faculty of Alabama A&M University (AAMU), and weare grateful that they
have been able to devote extra time and effort toward the preparation of this
important contribution to pyroelectric literature. I have no doubt that this
thought-provoking text will inspire further progress in the fascinating and
challenging field of pyroelectrics.
Andrew Hugine Jr., Ph.D.
President
Alabama A&M University
Normal, Alabama
August 2013
ix