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PSYCHOLOGY
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4
SIXTH EDITION
PSYCHOLOGY
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4
SIXTH EDITION
John GRIVAS
Nicole LETCH
Sixth edition published 2017 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 1996
Second edition published 1999
Third edition published 2004
Fourth edition published 2010
Fifth edition published 2013
Typeset in 10/12 pt ITC Veljovik Std
© J. Grivas 2017, 2013, 2010, 2004, 1999, 1996
The moral rights of the author have been asserted.
National Library of Australia
Cataloguing-in-publication data
Creator: Grivas, John, author.
Title: Psychology VCE Units 3 & 4 / John Grivas,
Nicole Letch
Edition: 6th edition
ISBN: 978 0 7303 2840 7 (set).
978 0 7303 2239 9 (paperback).
978 0 7303 2238 2 (eBook).
978 0 7303 3098 1 (studyON).
Notes: Includes index.
Target audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: P sychology — Study and teaching (Secondary)
Victorian Certificate of Education examination
— study guides.
Other creators/
contributors: Letch, Nicole, author.
Dewey number: 150.712
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface x Observational studies 56
Content matrix xv Natural and contrived settings 57
Participant and non-participant
About eBookPLUS and studyON xx
observation 58
Acknowledgements xxi
Advantages and limitations of observational
studies 59
PSYCHOLOGY —
Self-reports 61
Questionnaires 62
RESEARCH METHODS
Interviews 62
What research methods and key science skills Rating scales 63
are used in VCE Psychology? Advantages and limitations of self-reports 66
Types of data 67
Primary and secondary data 67
CHAPTER 1
Qualitative and quantitative data 68
Research methods in psychology 3
Organising, presenting and interpreting data 70
Defining psychology and its subject matter 4 Descriptive statistics 70
Mental processes and behaviour 5 Tables 71
Psychology as a scientific study 5 Graphs 72
Steps in psychological research 7 Percentages 74
Step 1 Identify the research topic 7 Mean as measure of central tendency 75
Step 2 Formulate the research hypothesis 7 Standard deviation as a measure of variation around
Step 3 Design the research 8 the mean 75
Step 4 Collect the data 8 Inferential statistics 77
Step 5 Analyse the data 8 Conclusions and generalisations 78
Step 6 Interpret and evaluate the results 8 Reliability and validity in research 80
Step 7 Report the research and findings 9 Reliability 80
Research methods 12 Validity 80
Sample and population 12 Internal and external validity 81
Research hypothesis 13 Ethics in psychological research and
Theory and model 14 reporting 82
Experimental research 15 National Statement on Ethical Conduct in
Variables 15 Human Research 83
Independent and dependent variables 15 Role of ethics committees 84
Operationalising independent and Australian Privacy Principles 85
dependent variables 18 Role of the experimenter 85
Experimental groups and control groups 20 Protection and security of participants’ information 85
Extraneous variables 21 Confidentiality 85
Confounding variables 22 Voluntary participation 85
Identifying extraneous and potential Withdrawal rights 85
confounding variables 24 Informed consent procedures 85
Ways of minimising extraneous and Use of deception 88
confounding variables 30 Debriefing 88
Advantages and limitations of experimental research 48 Use of animals in psychological research 89
Cross-sectional studies 52 Reporting conventions 92
Advantages and limitations of cross-sectional studies 52 Written report 92
Case studies 53 Title 92
Advantages and limitations of case studies 56 Abstract 93
Introduction 93 Major stressors 160
Method 93 Catastrophes 163
Results 93 Stress as a biological process 166
Discussion 93 Fight–flight–freeze response 166
References 93 Fight–flight reactions 166
Appendices (if any) 94 Freeze reactions 167
Poster report 94 Role of cortisol 168
Chapter summary 98 Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome 172
Key terms 99 Stage 1: Alarm reaction 173
Learning checklist 100 Stage 2: Resistance 173
Chapter test 101 Stage 3: Exhaustion 174
Strengths and limitations of Selye’s GAS 174
Stress as a psychological process 178
Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of
UNIT 3
Stress and Coping 178
HOW DOES EXPERIENCE Primary and secondary appraisals 179
Strengths and limitations of the Lazarus and
AFFECT BEHAVIOUR AND
Folkman model 180
Strategies for coping with stress 182
MENTAL PROCESSES?
Context-specific effectiveness 183
Coping flexibility 183
CHAPTER 2
Exercise 185
Nervous system functioning 109
Approach and avoidance coping strategies 187
Roles of different divisions 111 Chapter summary 191
Central nervous system 111 Key terms 192
The brain 111 Learning checklist 193
The spinal cord 113 Chapter test 194
Peripheral nervous system 114
Somatic nervous system 115 CHAPTER 4
The autonomic nervous system 116 Neural basis of learning
Divisions of the ANS 118 and memory 199
Conscious and unconscious responses to
sensory stimuli 122 Neural plasticity and changes to connections
between neurons 201
The spinal reflex 123
Neural plasticity 201
Role of the neuron 125
Changes to connections between neurons 202
Dendrites 125
Long-term potentiation and long-term
Axon 126
depression 203
Myelin 126
Role of neurotransmitters and neurohormones 207
Axon terminals 127
Role of glutamate in synaptic plasticity 207
Role of neurotransmitters 129
Role of adrenaline in the consolidation of
Neurotransmission as a lock-and-key process 130
emotionally arousing experiences 208
How interference to neurotransmitter function
Consolidation 208
can affect nervous system
Role of adrenaline 209
functioning 132
Chapter summary 213
Parkinson’s disease 132
Key terms 214
Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease 133
Learning checklist 214
Chapter summary 138
Chapter test 215
Key terms 139
Learning checklist 139
CHAPTER 5
Chapter test 140
Models to explain learning 219
CHAPTER 3 Classical conditioning 221
Stress as a psychobiological Classical conditioning as a three-phase
process 223
process 145
Stimulus generalisation 227
Eustress and distress 147 Stimulus discrimination 228
Sources of stress 149 Extinction 228
Daily pressures 149 Spontaneous recovery 228
Life events 151 The ‘Little Albert’ experiment 231
Acculturative stress 157 Ethical implications of the experiment 232
vi Contents
Operant conditioning 234 Effects of brain trauma on memory 313
Operant conditioning as a three-phase model 235 Anterograde amnesia 314
Reinforcers 239 Brain surgery 317
Positive reinforcer 239 Hippocampus 318
Negative reinforcer 240 Amygdala 320
Punishment 241 Cerebral cortex 322
Response cost 241 Cerebellum 323
Stimulus generalisation 244 Alzheimer’s disease 324
Stimulus discrimination 245 Brain damage associated with
Extinction 245 Alzheimer’s disease 325
Spontaneous recovery 245 Factors influencing ability and inability to
Observational learning 250 remember 329
Observational learning processes 253 Context and state dependent cues 330
Attention 253 Context dependent cues 330
Retention 253 State dependent cues 332
Reproduction 253 Maintenance and elaborative rehearsal 334
Motivation 254 Maintenance rehearsal 334
Reinforcement 254 Elaborative rehearsal 335
Bandura’s experiments with children 256 Serial position effect 337
Chapter summary 259 Chapter summary 341
Key terms 260 Key terms 342
Learning checklist 261 Learning checklist 342
Chapter test 262 Chapter test 343
CHAPTER 6
UNIT 4
Process of memory 267
HOW IS WELLBEING
Atkinson–Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory 269
Sensory memory 271
DEVELOPED AND
Iconic memory 272
Echoic memory 275 MAINTAINED?
Short-term memory (STM) 277
Duration of STM 277 CHAPTER 8
Capacity of STM 278 Nature of consciousness 351
STM functions as working memory 281
Consciousness as a psychological construct 352
Long-term memory 282
Consciousness varies along a continuum of
Explicit memory 282
awareness 354
Implicit memory 284
Normal waking consciousness and altered states of
Brain regions involved in the storage of
consciousness 358
long-term memories 289
Role of attention 359
Roles of the cerebral cortex 290
Selective attention 359
Roles of the hippocampus 290
Divided attention 360
Roles of the amygdala 292
Methods used to study consciousness 362
Roles of the cerebellum 294
Measurement of physiological responses 362
Chapter summary 296
Electroencephalograph (EEG) 362
Key terms 297
Electromyograph (EMG) 370
Learning checklist 297
Electro-oculargraph (EOG) 370
Chapter test 298
Measurement of speed and accuracy on
cognitive tasks 371
CHAPTER 7
Subjective reporting of consciousness —
Reliability of memory 301
sleep diaries 373
Methods to retrieve information from memory Video monitoring 373
or demonstrate the existence of information Changes in psychological state due to
in memory 302 levels of awareness 375
Recall 302 Content limitations 375
Recognition 303 Controlled and automatic processes 375
Relearning 304 Perceptual and cognitive distortions 377
Reconstruction 306 Emotional awareness 377
Fallibility of memory reconstruction 309 Self-control 378
Research by Loftus 309 Time orientation 378
Contents vii
Comparing effects of one night of full Chapter summary 465
sleep deprivation vs legal blood-alcohol Key terms 466
concentrations 379
Learning checklist 466
Chapter summary 385
Chapter test 467
Key terms 386
Learning checklist 386
CHAPTER 11
Chapter test 387
Mental health 473
CHAPTER 9 Mental health as a continuum 474
Sleep 391 Mental health as a product of internal and
external factors 477
Sleep and biological rhythms 393
Typical characteristics of a mentally
Circadian rhythms 393
healthy person 479
Ultradian rhythms 396
High level of functioning 479
NREM and REM sleep 398
High levels of social and emotional
NREM sleep 399
wellbeing 481
Stage 1 400
Resilience to life stressors 482
Stage 2 400
Ethical implications in mental health study
Stage 3 401
and research 484
Stage 4 401
Informed consent 485
REM sleep 402
Use of placebo treatments 486
Theories of the purpose and function of sleep 408
Chapter summary 490
Restoration theory 408
Key terms 491
Restorative functions of NREM and REM sleep 409
Evolutionary (circadian) theory 410 Learning checklist 491
Differences in sleep patterns across Chapter test 492
the lifespan 413
Newborns and infants 414 CHAPTER 12
Young children 414 Mental disorder 495
Adolescents 415
4P factor model 497
Adults 415
The four factors 498
Chapter summary 418
Biological risk factors 499
Key terms 419
Genetic vulnerability 499
Learning checklist 419
Poor response to medication due to
Chapter test 420
genetic factors 501
CHAPTER 10 Poor sleep 503
Sleep disturbances 425 Substance use 504
Psychological risk factors 506
Dyssomnias and parasomnias 427
Rumination 506
Dyssomnias 428
Impaired reasoning and memory 507
Narcolepsy 428
Impaired reasoning 507
Sleep-onset insomnia 432
Impaired memory 509
Parasomnias 435
Stress 510
Sleep apnoea 436
Poor self-efficacy 511
Sleep walking 438
Social risk factors 513
Circadian rhythm phase disorders 443
Disorganised attachment 513
Sleep–wake cycle shift in adolescence 444
Loss of a significant relationship 514
Shift work 446
Role of stigma as a barrier to accessing
Jet lag 449
treatment 515
Travelling west is best 450
Cumulative risk 519
Overcoming jet lag 451
Chapter summary 521
Effects of partial sleep deprivation 452
Key terms 522
Affective functioning 453
Learning checklist 522
Behavioural functioning 454
Chapter test 523
Cognitive functioning 455
Interventions to treat sleep disorders 457
CHAPTER 13
Cognitive behavioural therapy 457
Specific phobia 529
Cognitive component 458
Behavioural component 459 Stress, anxiety and phobia 531
Bright light therapy 462 Specific phobia 534
viii Contents
