Protected areas and ecotourism

221 Pages·2017·5.9 MB·English

Protected areas and ecotourism:
Charting a path toward
social-ecological wellbeing

by

Heidi Karst

A thesis
presented to the University of Waterloo
in fulfilment of the
thesis requirement for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Geography

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2017

©Heidi Karst 2017
EXAMINING COMMITTEE MEMBERSHIP
The following served on the Examining Committee for this thesis. The decision of the Examining
Committee is by majority vote.

External Examiner DR. DAVID BUTZ
Professor

Supervisor DR. SANJAY K. NEPAL
Professor

Internal Member DR. DEREK ARMITAGE
Associate Professor

Internal-external Member DR. SUZAN ILCAN
Professor

Other Member DR. BOB SHARPE
Associate Professor

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AUTHOR'S DECLARATION
This thesis consists of material all of which I authored or co-authored: see Statement of Contributions
included in the thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted
by my examiners.

I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public.

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STATEMENT OF CONTRIBUTIONS
In the Department of Geography and Environmental Management, doctoral dissertations may be presented
in either a standard (traditional) format or a manuscript option. The latter format is centred on three or four
publishable journal-type chapters on related issues, accompanied by introductory, methodology and
concluding chapters that integrate the research purposes and findings to form a conceptual whole. This
thesis adopts the manuscript option and fulfils its requirements, which can be found online at:
https://uwaterloo.ca/waterloo-laurier-graduate-program-in-geography/general-information-current-
students/manuscript-options
I am the sole author of Chapter 1, 2, 4 and 6 of this dissertation. Chapters 3 and 5 were co-authored
with Sanjay Nepal, and I was the lead author of these manuscripts. Chapter 4 was published in Journal of
Sustainable Tourism (Karst, 2016). Chapters 3 and 5 will be submitted for publication in the near future.
This thesis also cites a co-authored book chapter (Karst & Gyeltshen, 2016).

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Abstract
Protected areas (PAs) are changing rapidly in size and scope with the influx of development activities
intended to benefit people living within and near their borders. In developing countries, integrated
conservation and development projects (ICDPs), which include ecotourism, are expanding into
environmentally fragile areas where remote local and indigenous people live. However, decades of
research cite the inability of ICDPs to reach their full potential, suggesting that they do not adequately
balance human livelihoods with natural resource conservation. Protected area stakeholder relationships in
countries undergoing modernisation and democratisation, and local, indigenous perceptions of project
development in relation to social and ecological wellbeing are two largely under-explored areas of
research in conservation and ecotourism. Developing a better understanding of approaches to PA
conservation and development is critical given the increasing evidence of global ecosystem degradation
due to anthropogenic activities and, unless changes are made to policies, institutions and practices, the
continued, uneven and detrimental impacts on poor people.
The purpose of this doctoral research is to explore the impacts of ecotourism on the wellbeing of
human societies and nature in remote PAs, and the connections between community-level ecotourism and
other development initiatives to broader PA policies and practices. The study pursues three research
objectives: (1) to critically examine stakeholder relations in PA conservation; (2) to identify and assess
indigenous perceptions of ecotourism and wellbeing in relation to ecotourism development; and (3) to
refine and apply an integrative framework of wellbeing to empirically investigate the ways in which
ecotourism enhances or constrains social-ecological sustainability in developing areas.
This research was conducted through a case study of three local, indigenous PA communities in the
Merak-Sakteng region of Bhutan. Data were collected through unstructured interviews (n=20); community
(n=68) and non-community (n=50) semi-structured interviews; focus groups (n=6); literature review and
document analysis; participant observations; and debriefing sessions (n=4). An empirical analysis of
stakeholder relations first examined the progress and outcomes of two recent development projects,
revealing that indigenous communities face specific socio-cultural challenges that could benefit from
operational adjustments and new approaches. The buen vivir (living well) perspective was then used to
analyse indigenous perceptions of ecotourism and wellbeing and the influence of socio-cultural factors,
which illustrated the significant links between nature and indigenous cosmologies, socio-cultural values
and spiritual beliefs that can impact ecotourism development and local PA governance. Lastly, a social-
ecological wellbeing framework was developed to assess subjective, socio-relational, material and
ecological dimensions of wellbeing in communities. The framework emphasised the importance of social-
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relational aspects of wellbeing and their connection to declining ecological conditions, the capacity of
power relations between stakeholders to bring about wellbeing, and the constant trade-offs between
wellbeing dimensions regarding justice and authority at the local level.
This thesis refines an integrative framework of wellbeing to assess social-ecological sustainability by
uniting theoretical perspectives from development studies (social wellbeing, buen vivir) and social-
ecological systems, and empirically demonstrates the insights to be gained from adopting a multi-
dimensional approach to wellbeing in ecotourism development projects. It offers a theoretical and
methodological application of the buen vivir perspective to understand and analyse wellbeing in tourism
scholarship through a biocentric, communal and culturally sensitive worldview. The dissertation makes an
empirical contribution to research in terrestrial ecosystems in the context of Bhutan and provides much
needed perspectives on wellbeing from a mountain environment. Moreover, the research findings
contribute to broader debates around parks and conservation, indicating the need for more progressive
social conservation science and practice, and support for participatory and collaborative governance
approaches between local and indigenous communities and external PA stakeholders. These contributions,
while situated in the context of Bhutan, are relevant for other development projects and terrestrial PAs
around the world.

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Acknowledgements
A journey of this nature is not taken alone. I am grateful to many people for contributing to my wellbeing.
I would like to thank all the participants of this study, including the communities of Merak, Sakteng
and Joenkhar for their warm hospitality and endless cups of naja, suja and ara. This research would not
have been possible without the tremendous support of Dr. Karma Tshering, Sharap Wangchuk, Sonam
Penjor and staff at Nature Recreation and Ecotourism Division (NRED); Kesang Jigme, Sonam Tobgay
and staff at Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS); and Thuji Nadik at Tourism Council of Bhutan (TCB).
The data that was gathered would have been ‘lost in translation’ without the field assistants and rangers
from Merak and Trashigang (Tenzin Cheda, Dorji Chezom, Dorji Phuntsho, Kelzang Namgay, Sangay),
Sakteng (Mindu Dema, Jambay Dhendrup) and Joenkhar (Dorji Chezom, Sangay Choephel, Sonam
Jamstho), in addition to Sharap Wangchuk (NRED) and Tara Limbu. Thank you to Lhendup Tharchen and
staff at Jigme Dorji National Park for their kind assistance during my initial scoping trip.
I am grateful to my advisor, Dr. Sanjay Nepal, for his kind guidance, good humour and continuous
support throughout this journey. Sincere thanks go to my committee, Drs. Derek Armitage, Suzan Ilcan
and Bob Sharpe, whose keen insights and ideas constantly challenged and expanded my thinking over the
years. I also thank Dr. David Butz for his thoughtful comments and suggestions. Any errors or omissions
are my own.
I gratefully acknowledge the University of Waterloo for the scholarships and awards that funded this
research. In-kind support was generously provided by NRED, SWS and TCB while I was in the field.
Thank you to Jane Russwurm for her coaching and motivation during the core writing process, the
Geospatial Centre for GIS assistance, and Information Systems and Technology for their support. On the
administrative side, a huge thank you to Lori McConnell, Alan Anthony and Susie Castela.
This study would likely not have taken place in Bhutan were it not for certain friends and connectors,
namely Doug Worts, Benj Sinclair and Ron Coleman. Simon Teoh, Lucie Edwards and Kent Schroeder
have also been wonderful sounding boards.
I am fortunate to have family, friends and colleagues near and far who have been pillars of strength,
including my academic community through the Waterloo-Laurier Graduate Programme in Geography, and
the Environmental Change and Governance Group. I am particularly grateful to Mark Andrachuk, Jason
and Patty Angel, Samantha Berdej, Vito Lam, Zainab Moghal, Cristobal Pizarro (Marcia & Sofi), Luisa
Ramirez (Felipe), Kaitlyn Rathwell, Rubi Simhayov (Michal & family), Shanqi Zhang, Steve Alexander
and Helena Shilomboleni for their friendship, humour and feedback. Thank you to Mindu Dema and
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family for our time together in Sakteng, and to Sonam Dema, Pema Chhoden Wangchuk, Tshering
Choeki, Ariel Liebowitz, and Karma Tshering and family for making me feel at home in Thimphu. I also
thank Deacon Edgar Hopper for his mentorship and friendship.
A big shout-out to Windekind Buteau-Duitschaever and Laura Maple, Cathy Champagne, Priya
Dixit, Rebecca Hinde, Ian Krykorka, Karen Loffelmann and Bob Picken, Emilie McCabe, Rebecca Miller
and Andy Poole, the NTCI girls, Mary and Dominic Ong, Isha Tan, and Areti and Lefteris Tsiliganos for
supporting me in myriad ways, such as sharing pearls of wisdom, reviewing draft documents or providing
a home away from home.
Finally, I offer my heartfelt appreciation to my parents, Agnes (Siew Thau) and Arthur, and my
sister, Suzanne, for their constant encouragement.
Namé samé kadrinché la. Thank you beyond the sky and the earth.

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Dedication
To my mother and father, for loving me into being.
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Table of Contents
EXAMINING COMMITTEE MEMBERSHIP ....................................................................................... ii
AUTHOR'S DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. iii
STATEMENT OF CONTRIBUTIONS ................................................................................................... iv
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... vii
Dedication ................................................................................................................................................... ix
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... xiv
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. xv
List of Boxes.............................................................................................................................................. xvi
List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Research Context and Problem Rationale ........................................................................................... 1
1.2 Research Goal and Objectives ............................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Literature Review ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.3.1 Biodiversity conservation ............................................................................................................. 6
1.3.2 Ecotourism .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.3 Development studies: Wellbeing .................................................................................................. 9
1.3.4 Social-ecological systems ........................................................................................................... 15
1.3.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 17
1.4 Conceptual Overview ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.4.1 Integrating the literature .............................................................................................................. 18
1.4.2 Social-ecological wellbeing ........................................................................................................ 21
1.4.3 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 24
1.5 Empirical Context .............................................................................................................................. 24
1.6 Organisation of Thesis ....................................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 2 Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 30
2.1 Research Approach ............................................................................................................................ 30
2.1.1 Social constructivism .................................................................................................................. 30
2.1.2 Buen vivir ................................................................................................................................... 31
2.1.3 Researcher position ..................................................................................................................... 32
2.2 Research Design ................................................................................................................................ 36
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