Prosopis, an Alien among the Sacred Trees of South India

206 Pages·2011·4.61 MB·English

by  Kurt Walter

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No. 32 Laxén, J. 2007. Is prosopis a curse or a blessing? – An ecological-economic O
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HakaUpnaiignroafi Oa yOy
Prosopis, an Alien among the
Sacred Trees of South India

Kurt Walter

Academic Dissertation

To be presented with the permission of the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry of the University of
Helsinki for public discussion in Auditorium XII of the University Main Building, Unioninkatu 34,
on Friday 25 March at 12 o‟clock noon.

Helsinki
2011
Supervisors: Professor Olavi Luukkanen
Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI)
Department of Forest Sciences
University of Helsinki
Finland

Professor Karen Armstrong
Social and Cultural Anthropology
Faculty of Social Sciences
University of Helsinki
Finland

Reviewers: Dr. Demel Teketay Fanta
Research Scholar in Plant Ecology
Keeper, Peter Smith University of Botswana Herbarium (PSUB)
University of Botswana
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre (HOORC)
Botswana

Dr. Stig Johansson
Regional Director
Metsähallitus, Natural Heritage Services, Southern Finland
Vantaa
Finland

Opponent: Dr. Dina N. Tewari
President, Utthan Centre for Sustainable Development
& Poverty Alleviation
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh,
India

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ABSTRACT

The problematic of invasive species in an alien environment has aroused the attention of scientists
all over the world for quite some time. One of the exotic tree species that has provoked special
attention in the tropical drylands is Prosopis juliflora. Originating in South America, prosopis
(hereafter referred to as prosopis) has been introduced in the hot and semi-arid zones of the world
particularly to provide fuelwood, to stabilize sand dunes and to combat desertification. The tree has
become an essential source for fuelwood and a provider of several other products and services in
areas where it has become established.

However, despite the numerous benefits the tree provides to rural people, in several regions
prosopis has become a noxious weed with a negative impact on the environment and to the
economy of farmers and landowners. In India, prosopis was introduced in Andhra Pradesh in 1877.
The tree was then proclaimed as the precious child of the plant world by scientists and local people
alike.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the overall impact of prosopis on local rural livelihoods
in the drylands of South India. Of particular interest was the examination of the different usages of
the tree, especially as fuelwood, and people‟s perceptions of it. Furthermore, the study examined the
negative impacts of the uncontrolled invasion of prosopis on croplands, and its occupation of the
banks of irrigation canals and other water sources.

As another central theme, this study analysed the Hindu classification system for nature and for
trees in particular. In India, several tree species are regarded as sacred. This study examined the
position of the exotic prosopis among sacred trees, such as the bodhi, banyan and neem trees.

The principle method for collecting the field data was by using individual and thematic group
interviews. These interviews were semi-structured with open–ended questions. Moreover,
unstructured interviews as well as general observations provided complementary information. The
data were gathered during two fieldwork periods in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu,
in South India.

The results confirmed that prosopis both provides benefits and causes hazards to different
stakeholders. Farmers and agriculturalists suffer economic losses in areas where prosopis has
invaded crop fields and competes with other plants for water and nutrients. On the other hand, for a
significant number of poor rural people, prosopis has become an important source of livelihood
benefits. This tree, which grows on government wastelands, is commonly a free resource for all and
has thus become a major local source of fuelwood. It also provides several other goods and services
and cash income that contributes to improve livelihoods in rural communities.

Prosopis ranked lowest in the tree classificatioin system of the Hindus of South India. Although it is
appreciated for many benefits it provides for poor people, it has remained an “outsider” compared
with the indigenous tree species. On the other hand, the most sacred trees, such as the bodhi or the
banyan, are completely excluded from extraction and it is seen as a sacrilege to even cut branches
from any of these trees. An unexpected finding was that, in a few cases, prosopis had also been
elevated to the status of a sacred tree.

Goods and services from prosopis are not utilized in the most beneficial way. Silvicultural
management practices are suggested that would provide additional income and employment
opportunities. Interventions are recommended to control further invasion of the tree that might
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cause serious negative effects in the future. For Hindus, the sacred always ranks highest, even above
economic gain. The conservation of sacred groves and sacred trees is a tradition that has its roots in
ancient history. These socio-religious practices need to be respected and continued. Successful
management of tree and forest resources depends on the willingness of the local people to manage
their natural resources, and this willingness exists – and has always existed – in South India.

Keywords: South India, drylands, livelihood, fuelwood, invasive, resource, silviculture.

Author‟s address:
Kurt Walter
Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI)
Department of Forest Science
P.O.Box 27, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
E-mail: [email protected]
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PREFACE

This study was carried out at the Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI). Two departments of
the University of Helsinki were involved, The Department of Forest Sciences to which VITRI
belongs, and the Department of Social Research (Social and Cultural Anthropology). My first field
trip to India was funded by the Finnish Society of Forest Science. The same foundation also
supported me with a grant at a later stage of this study. Additional financial support was granted by
the Niemi Foundation and the Ella and Georg Ehrnrooth Foundation. I am grateful for all their
support.

In particular I want to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Olavi Luukkanen and
Professor Karen Armstrong. Their interest and support throughout the entire research process were
of utmost importance for the outcome of this study. They both supervised my Master thesis and
they encouraged me to continue my research for this doctoral study. I would like to thank Dr.
Eshetu Yirdaw who supported and encouraged me during all these years in the department. I am
indebted to all the members of the VITRI staff who helped me in various ways. Several researchers
from the Department of Forest Science have also supported and helped me during this period. I
want to express my warmest thanks to all of them.

There have been several people who helped me to carry out my fieldwork in India. I am grateful to
Profesoor M.N.V. Prasad from the University of Hyderabad for his valuable support during my
fieldwork in Andhra Pradesh. He initially showed interest in my research proposal and invited me to
India where he provided me with all the necessary assistance to carry out the data collection. In the
initial phase he acted as my interpreter during the interviews. My thanks go also to the University of
Hyderabad where I was provided with free accommodation and allowed to use all the facilities of
the university.

I would like to thank Dr. Jayaram Kottapalli for his field support during the data collection in
Andhra Pradesh. His skilful and professional assistance during this period was one of the
cornerstones for the success of this undertaking. My thanks go also to his parents for their
hospitality during my stay in their house in Baruva village. I am indebted to my friend Raja Sekar
and his family for their assistance and support during my fieldwork in Tamil Nadu. The fieldwork
would not have been possible without the participation of the local people in India. I want to thank
all of them for their hospitality and help in patiently answering all those questions I introduced to
them.

I would also like to thank Dr. Peter Felker, who I often contacted for advice and help. He never
failed to respond immediately, supporting me with his expertise and knowledge. My thanks go also
to all my friends and neighbours who supported me in many ways. Finally I want to express my
deepest gratitude to my life companion Silvia, who has been a great support during the entire
process. Her positive attitude and encouragement enabled me to enjoy life also outside the
university.

I dedicate this thesis to my first grandchild, Thomas, who was born on the 27th of February 2010.

Helsinki, January 2011
Kurt Walter

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 3
PREFACE....................................................................................................................................... 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ 6
LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND BOXES ................................................................................. 9
GLOSSARY OF SANSKRIT TERMS .......................................................................................... 11
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................... 14
MEASUREMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 14
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 17
1.1. Culture and nature .............................................................................................................. 17
1.2. Resource use and its influence on ecosystems ..................................................................... 18
1.3. Consequences of changing patterns of land use ................................................................... 19
1.4. Problem statement and significance of the study ................................................................. 20
1.5. Aims of the study ............................................................................................................... 20
2. Literature review ....................................................................................................................... 21
2. 1. Prosopis juliflora ............................................................................................................... 21
2.1.1. Nomenclature, habitat and growth................................................................................ 21
2.1.2. Global history of introduced Prosopis juliflora ............................................................ 23
2.1.3. Biological and ecological traits of Prosopis that promote invasions ............................. 27
2.1.4. Potential of Prosopis in rehabilitating degraded soils ................................................... 31
2.1.5. Management and utilisation of Prosopis ...................................................................... 34
2.1.6. Prosopis invasions and control..................................................................................... 39
2.2. Sacred native plants of India ............................................................................................... 42
2.3. A brief overview of India‟s history, current policy and caste system ................................... 45
2.3.1. A brief history of India ................................................................................................ 45
2.3.2. The Indian caste system ............................................................................................... 47
2.3.3. Forest policy in contemporary India ............................................................................. 49
3. Theoretical framework .............................................................................................................. 52
3.1. General remarks ................................................................................................................. 52
3.2. Invasive alien species ......................................................................................................... 52
3.2.1. Valuation ..................................................................................................................... 54
3.2.2. Invasive forest tree species........................................................................................... 55
3.3. Wood fuel .......................................................................................................................... 57
3.3.1. Definitions ................................................................................................................... 57
3.3.2. The assumed “fuelwood crisis” of the 1970s and 1980s ............................................... 58
3.3.3. Trees outside forests. ................................................................................................... 59
3.4. Rural livelihoods ................................................................................................................ 61
3.4.1. A framework for the analysis of rural livelihoods ......................................................... 61
3.4.2. Livelihood strategies .................................................................................................... 63
3.4.3. Livelihood diversification ............................................................................................ 63
3.4.4. “Investmment poverty” ................................................................................................ 65
3.5. Traditional Hindu classification of the environment ............................................................ 65
3.5.1. General remarks........................................................................................................... 65
3.5.2. Hindu cosmology and the Vedas .................................................................................. 65
3.5.3. Dharmic ecology in Hinduism ..................................................................................... 67
4. Material and methods ................................................................................................................ 70
4.1. Study area .......................................................................................................................... 70
4.1.1. General remarks........................................................................................................... 70
4.1.2. Andhra Pradesh ........................................................................................................... 70
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4.1.3. Tamil Nadu .................................................................................................................. 76
4.2. Research methodology ....................................................................................................... 79
4.2.1. General remarks........................................................................................................... 79
4.2.2. Fieldwork in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu ......................................... 79
4.3. Evaluation of the data collection method ............................................................................ 85
4.3.1. Reliability of the collected material .............................................................................. 85
4.4. Analysis of the collected research data................................................................................ 86
5. Results ...................................................................................................................................... 88
5.1. Household livelihoods in Andhra Pradesh........................................................................... 88
5.1.1. Rural villages in Andhra Pradesh ................................................................................. 88
5.1.2. Rural households and human capital ............................................................................ 90
5.1.3. Employment possibilities outside the agricultural sector .............................................. 92
5.1.4. Children and education ................................................................................................ 92
5.1.5. Household income ....................................................................................................... 94
5.1.6. Rural environment ....................................................................................................... 97
5.1.7. Urban environment ...................................................................................................... 97
5.2. Agriculture in the study area ............................................................................................... 99
5.2.1. Farming in rural Andhra Pradesh ................................................................................. 99
5.2.2. Agriculture in urban areas of Hyderabad .................................................................... 100
5.2.3. Agricultural seasons and crops ................................................................................... 101
5.2.4. Livestock ................................................................................................................... 103
5.2.5. Home gardens ............................................................................................................ 104
5.2.6. Farm forestry ............................................................................................................. 106
5.2.7. Aquaculture in the coastal areas ................................................................................. 107
5.3. Prosopis in Andhra Pradesh.............................................................................................. 108
5.3.1. Prosopis juliflora, an exotic tree as a natural resource ................................................ 108
5.3.2. People‟s perceptions and opinions about Prosopis ..................................................... 110
5.4. Different uses of Prosopis ................................................................................................ 115
5.4.1. Fuelwood ................................................................................................................... 115
5.4.2. Prosopis used as furniture .......................................................................................... 119
5.4.3. Agricultural equipment and tools made of Prosopis ................................................... 120
5.4.4. Charcoal .................................................................................................................... 121
5.4.5. Wood purchasing enterprises ..................................................................................... 122
5.4.6. Prosopis as a source of industrial biofuel ................................................................... 123
5.4.7. The brick industry ...................................................................................................... 126
5.4.8. Tobacco leaf drying ................................................................................................... 127
5.4.9. Prosopis as raw material for boats ............................................................................. 128
5.4.10. Environmental benefits ............................................................................................ 129
5.5. Invasiveness of Prosopis .................................................................................................. 131
5.6. Hindu classification of trees.............................................................................................. 135
5.6.1. Clasificationi of sacred trees ...................................................................................... 135
5.6.2. Veneration and status of sacred trees .......................................................................... 136
5.6.3. Tree marriages ........................................................................................................... 138
5.6.4. Trees as places of worship ......................................................................................... 141
5.6.5. Prosopis juliflora as a sacred tree .............................................................................. 143
5.7. The Pongal festival ........................................................................................................... 145
6. Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 147
6.1. Presentation of the discussion ........................................................................................... 147
6.2. Livelihood characteristics of rural households in Andhra Pradesh ..................................... 147
6.2.1. The people and their livelihood in the research area ................................................... 147
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6.2.2. The fuelwood resource ............................................................................................... 150
6.2.3. Options for eradicating and controling Prosopis......................................................... 151
6.2.4. Utilization of Prosopis ............................................................................................... 156
6.3. The role of forests and trees in Hindu culture .................................................................... 160
6.3.1. The roots of sacred trees in India ............................................................................... 160
6.3.2. Tree worship and rituals ............................................................................................. 162
6.3.3. Impact of sacred trees on environmental protection .................................................... 166
6.4. Conflicts over trees and forests and potential solutions ..................................................... 168
6.4.1. General remarks......................................................................................................... 168
6.4.2. The Bishnois .............................................................................................................. 168
6.4.3. The Chipko Andolan .................................................................................................. 169
6.4.4. The aftermath of the Bishnoi and Chipko conflicts ..................................................... 170
6.4.5. Conflict solution in India today .................................................................................. 170
7. Conclusions and recommendations .......................................................................................... 173
References .................................................................................................................................. 176
APPENDIX 1: ..................................................................................................................... 198
APPENDIX 2: ..................................................................................................................... 200
APPENDIX 3: ..................................................................................................................... 201

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LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND BOXES

Tables:

Table 1. The genus Prosopis L. without varieties .......................................................................... 22
Table 2. FAO projections of fuelwood consumption in the main developing regions, to 2030. ...... 60
Table 3. FAO projections of charcoal consumption in the main developing regions, to 2030. ........ 60
Table 4. Changes in land utilisation in Andhra Pradesh. ................................................................ 74
Table 5. Changes of land use pattern in Tamil Nadu. ..................................................................... 78
Table 6. Interviewees by gender in Andhra Pradesh. ..................................................................... 81
Table 7. Composition of group interviews. .................................................................................... 82
Table 8. Key informants with access to expert information. ........................................................... 82
Table 9. Distribution of professions among the different castes. .................................................... 90
Table 10. Investment, market prices and expected profits in agriculture. ....................................... 94
Table 11. Size of landholding owned by households of different castes. ........................................ 96
Table 12. Landholding sizes of inherited and rented land. ............................................................. 99
Table 13. Most common crops cultivated by the interviewees in Andhra Pradesh. ....................... 101
Table 14. Crop calendar of major crops in Andhra Pradesh for the rainfed agricultural season as
reported by the interviewees. ....................................................................................................... 103
Table 15. Observed plant species in home gardens. ..................................................................... 105
Table 16. Summary of local names for Prosopis and their meaning. ............................................ 108
Table 17. Perception of value of Prosopis. .................................................................................. 110
Table 18. Acknowledged uses and services of Prosopis. ............................................................. 111
Table 19. Opinions about Prosopis according to region. .............................................................. 112
Table 20. Summary of benefits and detriments of Prosopis as perceived by the interviewees. ..... 114
Table 21. Distribution of fuel use among Hindu castes. ............................................................... 116
Table 22. Timber prices of the three most frequently sold woods. ............................................... 119
Table 23. Ranking of tree species used for furniture. ................................................................... 120
Table 24. Prosopis firewood trading prices. ................................................................................ 123
Table 25. Jothy biopower plant energy. ....................................................................................... 124
Table 26: Rainfall periods during south-west and north-east monsoon periods in Andhra Pradesh
from 1995-2005 .......................................................................................................................... 153
Table 27: Rainfall periods during south-west monsoon ............................................................... 154
Table 28: Physical and mechanical properties of Prosopis glandulosa compared with three
recognised fine Indian hardwoods: Indian rosewood (Dahlbergia latifolia), cocobolo (Dalbergia
retusa), and Indian teak (Tectona grandis) .................................................................................. 158

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