Table Of ContentPromoting sustainable agriculture and
agroforestry to replace unproductive
land use in Fiji and Vanuatu
Edited by Steve Harrison and Md Saiful Karim
Promoting sustainable agriculture and
agroforestry to replace unproductive
land use in Fiji and Vanuatu
ACIAR Monograph MN191
Edited by Steve Harrison and Md Saiful Karim
2016
The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) was established in June
1982 by an Act of the Australian Parliament. ACIAR operates as part of Australia’s international
development cooperation program, with a mission to achieve more-productive and sustainable
agricultural systems, for the benefit of developing countries and Australia. It commissions
collaborative research between Australian and developing-country researchers in areas where
Australia has special research competence. It also administers Australia’s contribution to the
International Agricultural Research Centers.
Where trade names are used this constitutes neither endorsement of nor discrimination against
any product by ACIAR.
ACIAR MONOGRAPH SERIES
This series contains the results of original research supported by ACIAR, or material
deemed relevant to ACIAR’s research and development objectives. The series is distributed
internationally, with an emphasis on developing countries.
©Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) 2016
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no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from ACIAR,
GPO Box 1571, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia,<[email protected]>.
Steve Harrison and Md Saiful Karim (Eds). 2016. Promoting sustainable agriculture and
agroforestry to replace unproductive land use in Fiji and Vanuatu. Australian Centre for
International Agricultural Research: Canberra, ACT.
ACIAR Monograph no. MN191
ACIAR Monographs – ISSN 1031-8194 (print), ISSN 1447-090X (online)
ISBN 978 1 925436 61 7 (print)
ISBN 978 1 925436 62 4 (PDF)
Design by Peter Nolan, Canberra
Cover: Original photo by Robert Harrison, design by Peter Nolan
Foreword
Fiji and Vanuatu, along with other Pacific island countries, have a long history of mixed
species agroforestry (MSA). Integrating a variety of tree species into village and home
gardens, and mixed livestock and crop systems, provides a sustainable source of timber, food
and many other traditional products. However, the extent of agroforestry declined during the
colonial era and the subsequent urbanisation of Pacific island populations.
Various agroforestry benefits have been recognised—notable examples include increased
national self-sufficiency in timber and fuelwood, higher nutritional status of the population,
watershed protection, improved utilisation of degraded and marginalised cropping land,
strengthening of agricultural infrastructure, genetic conservation, carbon capture, and
improved wildlife habitat and landscape amenity.
This collection of 15 working papers, prepared by an ACIAR-funded research team
led by Dr Md Saiful Karim and with advice from Professor Steve Harrison, provides
valuable insights into the current status of MSA in Fiji and Vanuatu. It identifies technical
opportunities and constraints, and financial, policy and legal aspects. Agroforestry is an
appropriate land use for underutilised moderately sloping land between cropping and forestry
areas. A wide variety of traditional timber, fruit and nut tree species and food and other
crops are suitable for growing in these areas. Much of the land is degraded from clearing,
past cropping and wildfire. Challenges arise with respect to financing and managing relatively
complex farming systems, post-harvest processing and storage, and transport and marketing
of produce.
The papers in this monograph explore how to improve financial and broader economic
analysis of agroforestry systems. They also examine legal, capital, labour, management and
policy measures that could facilitate agroforestry in Fiji and Vanuatu. Financial analyses of
various individual tree and crop species, and of example mixed-species models, are provided
for both Fiji and Vanuatu. The information presented in this monograph offers valuable
insights into the potential for further agroforestry development in Fiji and Vanuatu, and
indeed other Pacific island countries.
Professor Andrew Campbell
Chief Executive Officer, ACIAR
3
Contents
Foreword .............................................................................................................................................3
Preface .................................................................................................................................................7
Contributors .......................................................................................................................................8
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................8
1. The contribution of agroforestry to economic development in Fiji and Vanuatu .............9
2. Modelling approaches for mixed-species agroforestry systems .........................................19
3. Evaluating the financial performance of novel tree species for forestry and
agroforestry projects in Fiji and Vanuatu ............................................................................38
4. Non-market values of agroforestry systems and implications for Pacific island
agroforestry .............................................................................................................................52
5. Opportunities for and constraints to agroforestry expansion on underutilised
land in western Viti Levu, Fiji ...............................................................................................62
6. Agroforestry establishment and protection on degraded land in western Viti
Levu, Fiji ..................................................................................................................................75
7. Priority tree species and potential agroforestry species mixtures for Fiji and
Vanuatu ...................................................................................................................................92
8. Financial models of multi-species agroforestry systems in Fiji and Vanuatu ....................104
9. Screenshots of multi-species financial models and explanatory notes ..........................117
10. Assistance measures for smallholder forestry and agroforestry, with particular
reference to Fiji and Vanuatu .............................................................................................147
11. Prospects for agroforestry in Vanuatu: findings from a survey ......................................163
12. Policy and legal framework for promoting sustainable agroforestry in Fiji ..................171
13. Policies and laws for promoting sustainable agroforestry in Vanuatu ...........................182
14. Agroforestry and sustainable livelihoods in Fiji: two case studies .................................191
15. Agroforestry and sustainable livelihoods in Vanuatu: insights from two case
studies ..................................................................................................................................195
5
Preface
A number of working papers have been prepared forestry and agroforestry in Fiji and Vanuatu
under ACIAR project ADP/2014/013, ‘Promoting (WP4)
sustainable agriculture and agroforestry to replace • assessments of the constraints to, and opportunities
unproductive land use in Fiji and Vanuatu’. These for, establishing agroforestry in the Western
are based on literature searches, fieldwork in Fiji and Division of Fiji (WP5 and WP6)
Vanuatu, discussions with project participants and • a survey of the various lists of tree species which
other key informants in Fiji, Vanuatu and Australia, have been identified as having priority for growing
and discussions with researchers participating in other in Fiji and Vanuatu and the criteria used for their
ACIAR projects. The papers have been designed to selection (WP7)
share information among research teams in project • details of financial models of selected individual
ADP/2014/013 as well as project ADP/2014/012, tree and crop species and mixed-species
‘Improving livelihoods and economic progress through agroforestry systems, and estimates of financial
rehabilitation of degraded catchments in Fiji and performance of both groups (WP8 and 9)
Vanuatu’, in order to provide a common understanding • an assessment of the most suitable financing and
of research issues, and as far as practicable, a consistent other measures to promote agroforestry in the two
research methodology. In addition, the working papers countries (WP10)
report on major findings of project ADP/2014/013 • findings from a smallholder survey on the potential
and provide background to information in the final for agroforestry adoption in Vanuatu (WP11)
report of project ADP/2014/012. • critical examination of relevant laws and polices
These working papers have been compiled into a relating to agroforestry in Fiji and Vanuatu (WP12
monograph to accompany the final report of project and 13)
ADP/2014/013 and provide greater detail. Along with • two case studies on existing agroforestry practices
the final report and workshop papers, the monograph in Fiji and Vanuatu (WP14 and 15).
provides a record of research conducted under project
Working papers 2 to 4 have a focus on
ADP/2014/013 and makes this available to a wider
methodology for financial and economic (cost–benefit)
audience interested in agroforestry systems in Fiji and
analysis, while the other papers address issues related
Vanuatu. The working papers also provide a useful
to the promotion of agroforestry in Fiji and Vanuatu.
basis for further research into agroforestry systems (or
It is clear from the working papers that the
ecological intensification) in the two countries.
extent of agroforestry practice in Fiji and Vanuatu
Among the working papers (WPs) are: has declined in recent decades, including during
the colonial era, and that a number of constraints
• a macroeconomic overview of agroforestry benefits
impede further adoption. At the same time, there is
in Pacific islands (WP1)
a substantial area of underutilised land available—
• a survey of approaches which have been adopted for
notably at the interface between agricultural cropping
modelling the performance of agroforestry systems
and plantation forestry—and major benefits could
(WP2)
be achieved from agroforestry expansion if suitable
• the steps required for modelling the financial
support measures are adopted.
performance of novel tree species (WP3) and
for carrying out a broader modelling approach
to include environmental and social benefits of Steve Harrison and Md Saiful Karim
7
Contributors and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Contributors
Aising, Lazarus Harrison, Stephen
Department of Industry, Ministry of Trade, Industry Queensland University of Technology (QUT), The
and Commerce, Tourism and Ni-Vanuatu Business, University of Queensland, and Sunshine Coast
Vanuatu. University, Australia.
Alauddin, Mohammad Kabir, Md Jahangir
School of Economics, The University of Queensland, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The
Brisbane, Australia. University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Bulai, Sairusi Karim, Md Saiful
Land Resources Division, Pacific Community (SPC), Faculty of Law, Queensland University of Technology
Suva, Fiji. (QUT), Brisbane, Australia.
Button-Sloan, Alexander Kete, Tevita
Faculty of Law, Queensland University of Technology Land Resources Division, Pacific Community (SPC),
(QUT), Brisbane, Australia. Suva, Fiji.
Harrison, Robert Lagataki, Samuela
Queensland University of Technology (QUT) and Ministry of Fisheries and Forests, Republic of Fiji.
Department of Environment and Heritage Protection,
Sullivan, Caroline
Queensland Government, Brisbane, Australia.
Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South
Wales, Australia.
Acknowledgments
Many people have provided information and guidance for silvicultural activities, and Professor David Lamb
to support this project. Tevita Kete, Sairusi Bulai, for advice on fuel reduction buffers for wildfire control
Sanfred Smith, Cenon Padolina and other staff of the or prevention; all are associated with the University
Pacific Community, Mr Jimmy Rantes and Mr Lazarus of the Sunshine Coast. We would like to thank Ms
Aising of the Department of Industry, Ministry of Anne Moorhead for her excellent editing. Our thanks
Trade, Commerce, Industry and Tourism, Government are also due to our research assistants Mr Alexander
of Republic of Vanuatu, Ms Susana Waqainabete- Button-Sloan and Mr Jahangir Kabir.
Tuisese of Conservation International, and Sanjay The research reported in this monograph was
N. Prakash, Acting Chief Executive Officer, Sugar funded by ACIAR. We would like to acknowledge
Research Institute of Fiji are especially acknowledged. the careful guidance of Dr Ejaz Qureshi, Research
Valuable input was also provided by Mr Irfan Program Manager, Agricultural Development Policy,
Hussain, iTaukei Land Trust Board (TLTB), Mr ACIAR. We would also like to thank Dr Richard
Eliki Senivasa, Fiji Ministry of Fisheries and Forests, Markham, Research Program Manager, Horticulture,
Dr Lex Thompson, University of the Sunshine Coast, ACIAR and Mr Tony Bartlett, Research Program
Mr Marika Tuiwawa, University of the South Pacific, Manager, Forestry, ACIAR for their guidance and
and Mr Naka Waka, Fiji Ministry of Agriculture and suggestions.
Primary Industries.
Our thanks are also due to Dr Nestor Gregorio and
Steve Harrison and Md Saiful Karim
Dr Jack Baynes for assistance in deriving work rates
8
1. The contribution of agroforestry
to economic development
in Fiji and Vanuatu
Steve Harrison, Saiful Karim, Mohammed Alauddin and Robert Harrison
Abstract
Multi-species agroforestry has for centuries been a widely practised land use in the Pacific islands, includ-
ing in Fiji and Vanuatu. Various forms of agroforestry are practised, the most widely recognised being
mixed-species plantings involving timber, fruit or nut trees intercropped with root crops and other food
crops; and silvo pastoral systems, such as ‘cattle under coconuts’. During and after colonial times, there was
a major decline in agroforestry practice. Home and village gardens now have a reduced role as a source of
food for households in Fiji and Vanuatu. Current trends of urbanisation, cash cropping and heavy reliance
on food imports, together with reduced prices for previously major export crops, have made the need to
encourage multi-species plantings particularly apparent. A comprehensive literature review reveals that an
impressive range of benefits can be attributed to multi-species agroforestry, including: agricultural diver-
sification; genetic conservation; carbon capture; catchment protection and rehabilitation; strengthening
of agricultural infrastructure; increased self-sufficiency in timber and fuelwood; reduced need for food
imports; poverty reduction; improvement in the nutritional status of people and associated health benefits;
improved utilisation of degraded and marginal cropping land; improved wildlife habitat; and landscape
amenity. While agroforestry is a more complex type of land use than monoculture timber plantations, it
also offers greater benefits. However, agroforestry is not generally the responsibility of any individual gov-
ernment department, and new forms of governance may be needed to provide a more supportive framework
for renewed adoption.
INTRODUCTION benefits to adopters and positive externalities at a local
level. Relative to monoculture forestry, the evaluation
Various forms of agroforestry have been identified of these benefits in economic, social or ecological
in the Pacific islands, including plantation–crop terms is typically difficult due to the complexity of
combinations, multipurpose trees, homegardens, MSA systems. While agroforestry systems have a
alley cropping or hedgerow intercropping, taungya, very long history in the Pacific islands, European
sequential cropping systems, dispersed trees with colonisation and subsequent independence have led to
understory intercropping, silvopasture, shelterbelts major changes in land-use patterns. Recent changes
and windbreaks, live fences and border plantings, and in farming systems (e.g. increased cash cropping) and
improved fallow and land rehabilitation (e.g. Elevitch in demography (particularly urbanisation) have led
and Wilkinson 2000; Alavalapati and Mercer 2004; to a movement away from agroforestry. However,
Kumar and Nair 2006). In this paper, the focus is on since about the mid-1970s there has been increasing
the first of these forms, which has also been referred recognition of the benefits of agroforestry systems and
to as multi-species agroforestry or MSA (Thaman et strong interest in their restoration.
al. 2000). This working paper reviews the evolution of
Agroforestry systems are recognised as providing agroforestry systems in Pacific island countries,
a wide range of benefits in terms of sustainable particularly in Fiji and Vanuatu. The benefits
development at a national level, as well as private attributed to agroforestry from a national
9
Description:ISBN 978 1 925436 62 4 (PDF). Design by gardens, and mixed livestock and crop systems, provides a sustainable source of timber, food and many
