Project Gemini: technology and operations; a chronology

324 Pages·1969·19.482 MB·English

by  James M Grimwood, Barton C Hacker, Peter J Vorzimmer

NASA SP-4002
PROJECT GEMINI
TECHNOLOGY AND OPERATIONS
Prepared by
James M. Grimwood and Barton C. Hacker
with Peter J. Vorzimmer
THE NASA HISTORICAL SERIES
___.,/ Scientific and Technical Information Division
'___7 OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION 1969
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
Washington, D.C.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Price$2.75 (papercover)
Librm'j o_C._'¢ss Catalog Card Number 68-62086
FOREWORD
Gemini was one of the early pioneering efforts in the developing space
capability of this nation. The initiation of this program was timed to take
advantage of the knowledge gained in our first series of manned space flights--
Project Mercury. The Mercury program successfully demonstrated manned
orbital flight. Perhaps more important it provided extensive information on
how to build and fly spacecraft for the more complex missions yet to come.
Drawing on this experience, the Gemini program was able to produce for its
time a highly flexible space vehicle of considerable operational capability.
These characteristics enabled a rapid expansion of American flight horizons.
The most significant achievements of Gemini involved precision maneuver-
ing in orbit and a major extension of the duration of manned space flights.
These included the first rendezvous in orbit of one spacecraft with another and
the docking of two spacecraft together. The docking operation allowed the use
of a large propulsion system to carry men to gre_ter heights above Earth than
had been previously possible, thereby enabling the astronauts to view and
photograph Earth over extensive areas. Precision maneuvering was also
employed during the very high speed reentry back to the surface of Earth,
enabling accurate landings to be made. The length of our manned space flights
was extended to as long as 14 days, a duration that has yet to be exceeded as of
this writing, although this was accomplished about three years ago.
Of great general interest were the investigations of the operations of an
astronaut outside the confines of his spacecraft, protected from the hard vac-
uum of space by his pressurized space suit. These extravehicular activities did
in f_t produce some difficulties, but, in the end, highly successful operations
were conducted.
All of these activities have greatly contributed to expanding activities in
space that we now have underway or will be forthcoming. In Apollo, the pro-
gram involved with landing men on the lunar surface, the crews must be trans-
ported roughly 0_40,000miles to the Moon and then back to Earth. This trip will
take a week or more. The Apollo spacecraft must perform a rendezvous not
near Earth but out at lunar distances in order for this mission to be success-
ful. Once again, the astronauts must leave their spacecraft and sin their pressure
suits, step out onto the lunar surface so that scientific exploration can be con-
ducted. The fact that all of these things were initially demonstrated and then
investigated further in a number of the Gemini missions greatly aids the devel-
opment of the more difficult missions that we are about to undertake.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of the Gemini program was the man-
ner in which the astronauts contributed to the success of each mission. In the
flying of the spacecraft, in the management of the systems, in the overcoming
of problems_ and in the aid to attainment of important scientific and technologi-
cal information, their presence enhanced greatly the success of the program.
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PROJECT GEMINI: A CIIRONOLOGY
They were backed up by a large and dedicated team of people here on the
ground who designed, developed, and checked out the vehicles and controlled
the flights. The Chronology presented herein as a factual presentation of events
taken primarily from official documentation of the program. It, therefore_
cannot reflect many of the "behind the scenes" activities so important to the con-
duct of a successful program involving exploratory endeavors. The high moti-
vation to make the Gemini program work, file rapid reaction in overcoming dif-
ficulties, 1,_rge and small, and the attention to detail are all factors contributing
to the ten successful manned flights which provided nearly two thousand man
hours of direct space flight experience.
CtIARLES W. MATHEWS
Deputy Associate Administrator
O_ce of Manned Space Flight
September 16, 1968
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CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .................................... viii
INTRODUCTION .............................................. xiii
PART I--CONCEPT AND DESIGN ............................ 1
PART II--DEVELOPMENT AND QUALIFICATION ............ 69
PART III--FLIGHT TESTS .................................... 173
APPENDICES ................................................. 263
i. GEMINI PROGRAM FLIGHT SUMMARY DATA ................... 264
TABLE A: General...................................... 264
TABLE B: OrbitalOperations............................. 266
TABLE C: ProjectGemini Experiments.................... 268
TABLE D: ExtravehicularActivityon Gemini Missions...... 270
2. GEMINI PROGRAM AND MISSION OBJECTIVES .................. 271
3. VEHICLE MANUFACTURING AND TESTING HISTORIES ........... 277
TABLE A: Gemini Launch Vehicle........................ 277
TABLE B: Gemini TargetVehicle......................... 279
TABLE C: Gemini TargetLaunch Vehicle.................. 280
TABLE D: Gemini Spacecraf.t............................ 281
4. WORLDWIDE TRACKING NETWORK ........................... 282
5. COSTOFGEMINIPROGRAM................................. 283
6.NASA CENTERS AND OTHER GOVERNMENT AGENCIES PARTICI-
PATING IN THE GEMINI PROGRAM ............................ 283
7. CONTRACTORS, SUBCONTRACTORS, AND VENDORS ............... 284
8. U.S. MANNED SPACE FLIGHT RECORD, SUMMARY OF MERCURY
AND GEMINI FLIGHTS ...................................... 290
INDEX ........................................................ 291
vii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
Frontispiece
First successful rendezvous .................................. ii
3
1 Proposed mission for modified Mercury capsule ................
5
2 Early version of "lifting" Mercury capsule ....................
6
3 Proposed version of one-man space station .....................
8
4 Orbital operations requiring a rendezvous development program__
9
5 Deployment sequence for Mercury paraglider ...................
6 Interior arrangement for proposed two-man Mercury spacecraft__ 10
7 Adapter section of proposed two-man Mercury spacecraft ....... 11
8 Proposed "Lunar Lander" for use with advanced Mercury space-
craft: Artist's conception .................................... 12
9 Drawing of modified Titan II for launch of advanced Mercury___ 13
10 Launch schedule for final version of Mark II Project Development
Plan ...................................................... 15
11 First publicly released illustration of Gemini spacecraft ......... 2O
12 Operating principle of General Electric fuel cell for Gemini ...... 22
13 Early conception of rendezvous mission ....................... 23
14 Block diagram of Gemini environmental control system ......... 25
15 General arrangement of liquid rocket systems in the Gemini
26
spacecraft and typical thrust chamber assembly ................
28
16a Gemini flight trainer for crew training .........................
28
16b Gemini docking trainer for crew training ......................
17 Main elements of the radar rendezvous system on Gemini space-
craft and Agena target vehicle ............................... 29
18 Block diagram of the attitude control and maneuvering electronics
29
system of Gemini spacecraft .................................
19 Gemini spacecraft landing gear for land landing with the para-
30
glider .....................................................
20 Ejection scats in the Gemini spacecraft" Artist's conception ...... 31
21 Reactant supply system for Gemini htel cells .................. 33
22 Operation of the horizon sensor for Gemini spacecraft ........... 33
23 Retrograde rocket system for the Gemini spacecraft ............ 34
24 Gemini spacecraft communications system ..................... 35
25 Table showing communiciation functions during a mission ....... 36
26 Inertial guidance system .................................... 37
27 General nomenclature of the Gemini spacecraft ................ 38
28 Gemini spacecraft tracking aids .............................. 39
29 Block diagram of the Gemini spacecraft guidance and control
4O
system ....................................................
45
30 Solid-propellant retrograde rocket motor ......................
46
31 Parachute recovery system for the first Gemini spacecraft .......
Vlll
LIST OF ILLUST_ATI0_S
FIGURE PAGE
32 Paraglider deployment sequence of events ..................... 48
33 Emergency parachute recovery system for half-scale paraglider
flight test vehicle ........................................... 49
34 "Off-the-pad" escape mode for aborted Gemini mission .......... 50
35 Airborne systems functional test stand at Martin-Baltimore ..... 52
36 Emergency parachute recovery system for full-scale paraglider
flight test vehicle ........................................... 54
37 Engineering mockup of Gemini spacecraft at McDonnell, St.
Louis ..................................................... 57
38 Proposed layout of Gemini facilities at Cape Canaveral ......... 58
39 Sequence of events for Gemini missions ....................... 59
40 Proposed sequence of events for first Gemini mission ............ 60
41 The B. F. Goodrich partial-wear full-pressure suit for Gemini .... 64
42 Manned Spacecraft Center Gemini facilities at Cape Canaveral
and Merritt Island Launch Area ............................. 65
43 Paraglider half-scale test vehicle being lifted by helicopter ....... 66
44 Ten percent model of Gemini spacecraft used for wind tunnel
testing at McDonnell ....................................... 67
45 Consoles in tracking network remote stations .................. 72
46 Gemini fuel cell stack ....................................... 74
47 Titan II N-15 launch at Cape Canaveral ...................... 77
48 Ballute deployment ......................................... 78
49 Assembly of Gemini launch vehicle fuel and oxidizer tanks for
Stages I and II ............................................ 81-82
50 Primary propulsion system of Gemini Agena target vehicle ...... 88
51 "POGO" suppression equipment ...... 93
.......................
52 Gemini Launch Vehicle 1 being tested in Martin's vertical test
facility in Baltimore ........................................ 95
53 Malfunction detection system showing interface with Gemini
spacecraft ................................................. 97
54 Preparation of Gemini ejection seat for a dynamic sled test ...... 99
55 Reentry control system for Gemini Spacecraft No. 1............ 101
56 Preparation for a test run in the centrifuge at Johnsville, Penn-
sylvania ................................................... 102
57 Paraglider full-scale test vehicle .............................. 105
58 Desert training for astronauts ................................ 106
59 Water impact test of the Gemini parachute recovery system ..... 107
60 Proposed parasail landing system: Artist's conception ........... 110
61 Gemini parachute recovery system operational sequence ......... 112
62 Diagram of the Gemini launch vehicle Stage II engine .......... 115
63 Instrumentation pallets for Gemini Spacecraft No. 1.......... 116-117
64 Installation of right ballast pallet and instrumentation pallet in
Gemini Spacecraft No. 1.................................... 118
65 Jump-testing the 36-inch ballute at E1 Centro, California ........ 124
66 Sequence compatibility firing of both stages of Gemini Launch
Vehicle 1.................................................. 128
67 Interface between Gemini launch vehicle and spacecraft ......... 130
68 Gemini Boilerplate 3A in the production area at McDonnell ..... 132
69 Agena secondary propulsion system ........................... 134
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PIlOJECT GEMINI: A CHROI_-0L,0GY
FIGURE PAGE
70 Electronic-electrical interference tests of Gemini-Titan 1........ 137
71 Parachute test vehicle ...................................... 140
72 Configuration of the Gemini Agena target vehicle .............. 144
73 Three basic rendezvous plans considered for the first rendezvous
mission in Gemini .......................................... 148
74 Special instrumentation pallets for Gemini Spacecraft No. 2..... 150
75 Unloading of Gemini Launch Vehicle 2 first stage at Cape Kennedy_ 152
76 Egress training in Galveston Bay ............................. 158
77 Gemini Launch Vehicle 3 undergoing final checks ............... 159
78 Backup and prime crews for Gemini-Titan 3 at Rollout Inspection
for launch vehicle: 1.to r., Thomas P. Stafford; Walter M. Schirra,
Jr.; John W. Young; and Virgil I. Grissom .................... 160
79 Gemini network ............................................ 161
80 Water egress training at Ellington Air Force Base, Texas ........ 162
81 Gemini G4C extravehicular suit .............................. 163
82 Zero-G tests in a KC-135 ................................... 164
83a Astronauts Grissom and Young in the Gemini mission simulator
at Cape Kennedy ................ .......................... 165
83b Technicians at consoles of the Gemini mission simulator at Cape
Kennedy .................................................. 166
84 Agena Target Vehicle program terminology .................... 168
85 Gemini Launch Vehicle Stage I hydraulic system ............... 169
86 Agena D 82 being modified to Gemini Target Vehicle 5002 ...... 171
87 Gemini G4C extravehicular suit with chest pack and umbilical___ 172
88 Gemini Spacecraft No. 3 being unloaded at Cape Kennedy ...... 175
89 Simulated Off-the-Pad Ejection Test No. 13 at China Lake,
California ................................................. 178
90 Tracking network for the second Gemini mission ............... 180
91 Gemini Launch Vehicle 5 erection at the vertical test facility,
Martin-Baltimore ........................................... 183
92 Agena target vehicle command and communication system loca-
tions ...................................................... 186
93 Gemini-Titan 3 on pad 19................................... 187
94 Gemini Spacecraft No. 4 entering altitude chamber at McDonnell__ 188
95 Extravehicular activity practice in the altitude chamber at
McDonnell ................................................ 189
96 Astronauts Young and Grissom walking toward elevator on Pad 19 190
97 Gemini Spacecraft No. 3 being hoisted aboard recovery ship ..... 191
98 Astronaut James A. McDivitt undergoing wet mock simulated
launch .................................................... 195
99 Hand-held maneuvering unit ................................. 196
100 Gemini Spacecraft No. 5 cleanup ............................. 197
101 Target docking adapter assembly ............................. 198
102a Launch vehicle erector tower being lowered .................... 199
102b Gemini- Titan 4 launch ...................................... 200
103 Gemini-Titan 4 extravehicular activity ........................ 201
104 Rendezvous evaluation pod in the equipment section of Gemini
Spacecraft No. 5........................................... 204
105 Gemini 5 ingress practice .................................... 206
X
J
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
106 Agena target launch vehicle being delivered to final assembly area_ 207
107 Mission Control Center, Houston, during Gemini 5 mission:
left to right, Christopher C. Kraft, Jr.; Robert R. Gilruth; and
George M. Low ............................................ 209
108 Florida peninsula from Gemini 5.............................. 210
109 Gemini Spacecraft No. 7 in clean room at McDonnell ........... 212
110 Gemini Spacecraft No. 8 in McDonnell's clean room ............ 214
llla General arrangement of augmented target docking adapter ...... 221
lllb Augmented target docking adapter equipment ................. 221
112 Mockup of augmented target docking adapter and Gemini space-
craft at McDonnell ......................................... 222
113 Gemini VII crew walking toward elevator at pad 19............ 223
114 Gemini VII crew on deck of U.S.S. Wasp after recovery ......... 224
115 Gemini Spacecraft No. 6 being hoisted at complex 19............ 225
116 Attempted launch and shutdown of Gemini VI-A .............. 227
117 Houston Mission Control Center reaction to first rendezvous ..... 228
118 Swimmers attaching cable to Gemini VI-A spacecraft after landing_ 228
119 Donning the astronaut maneuvering unit ...................... 234
120 Launch of Gemini Atlas-Agena target vehicle for Gemini VIII
mission ................................................... 236
121a Final stage of Gemini VIII and Gemini Agena target vehicle ren-
dezvous ................................................... 237
121b Gemini VIII and Agena in docked configuration ............... 238
122 Demonstration of astronaut maneuvering unit ................. 242
123 Augmented target docking adapter with shroud still attached .... 245
124 Gemini Launch Vehicle 11 Stages I and II arriving at complex
19........................................................ 247
125 Gemini Atlas-Agena target vehicle for Gemini X at complex 14__ 249
126 Gemini XI spacecraft in the pyrotechnic installation building at
Merritt Island Launch Area ................................. 250
127 Gemini XI astronaut returns to spacecraft hatch ............... 254
128 View of India and Ceylon during the Gemini XI mission ........ 255
129 Gemini XI during landing phase ............................. 256
130 Gemini XII astronaut with micrometeoroid package ............ 259
131 Tethered operation during Gemini XII ........................ 260
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