Table Of ContentAnup K. Ghosh · Mayank Dwivedi
Processability
of Polymeric
Composites
Processability of Polymeric Composites
Anup K. Ghosh
Mayank Dwivedi
Processability
of Polymeric
Composites
Anup K. Ghosh Mayank Dwivedi
Department of Materials Directorate of Industry Interface
Science and Engineering and Technology Management
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Defence R&D Organisation Headquarters
New Delhi, India New Delhi, India
ISBN 978-81-322-3931-4 ISBN 978-81-322-3933-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-3933-8
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V
Preface
Processing of advanced composites has cal, chemical, thermal, etc.) of matrices
witnessed a phenomenal growth over the and reinforcements, and types of rein-
last few decades. It is expected to grow at forcements (in terms of fibres, weaves, par-
even a much faster rate due to the emer- ticulate, whiskers, etc.). It also discusses
gence of new processing technologies and factors for quantitative understanding of
the availability of a range of reinforce- processability.
ments and matrices. The choices offered by
the variety of reinforcements and matrices In order to make our readers appreciate
pose a challenge to selecting the right the potential of polymeric composites in
combinations of materials—not only from various sectors, applications and advan-
the point of view of the desired properties tages of polymeric composites are dis-
of the end product but also from the pro- cussed in 7Chap. 2. This chapter gives an
cessability. Both quality and cost- insight to the enormity of polymeric com-
effectiveness are also addressed. The posites. It is stressed that the processability
availability of various processing technolo- aspects for advanced composites have a
gies and their combination makes this task direct impact on the performance of the
further complex. product.
Processability is the capability of any sys- 7Chapter 3 discusses micromechanics and
tem or material to be converted into the macromechanics of advanced composites
desired outcome or product. The process- to impart a better understanding of com-
ability in advanced composites is influ- posites and their mechanical behaviours
enced by many factors, such as the under stress and strains. This chapter out-
chemical nature of the matrix and rein- lines theories for the basic understanding
forcement, interactions between phases, of the performance of advanced compos-
physical dimension of the reinforcement, ites including the modes of failures. The
additives, surface treatments on reinforce- influence of interfaces of a matrix and rein-
ment, rheology of the matrix or system, forcement for creating interphases in
temperature, pressure, and so on. Process- advanced composites and role of inter-
ability of constituents of composites is the phases in the composites are also empha-
key to processing advanced composites for sized in this chapter.
a desired outcome. In this pursuit, there
will be a greater demand for trained and The rheology of a matrix and the rheology
highly skilled manpower now than before. of a matrix under the influence of rein-
Keeping this demand in mind, the authors forcement are explained in 7Chap. 4. The
have written this book for the students, important aspects of processability of ther-
engineers, and technologists who are pur- moset matrices, thermoplastic matrices,
suing a career in the field of processing and organic/inorganic/hybrid reinforce-
advanced composites. ments are discussed. The selection meth-
odology for matrices and reinforcement in
This book covers various topics of interest regard to their processability and to
with special references to distinct charac- develop desired composite product is
teristics of processability in the processing explained. The differences between theo-
of advanced composites. It starts with retical assessment and practical realities in
7Chap. 1, which explains processability processing, depending on the processabil-
and its dimensions. This chapter further ity of advanced composite, are emphasized
describes the classification of advanced in this book. The processability of pre-
composites, properties (physical mechani- forms and prepregs is also mentioned for a
V I Preface
broader understanding of the readers in elaborated in 7Chap. 8. Closed mould
the area of advanced composite manufac- processing technologies (matched die
turing. These discussions provide an moulding, compression moulding, auto-
assessment on the processability of claving, injection moulding, extrusion,
advanced composites and the role of its pultrusion, etc.) are used for production of
constituents. composite products with high dimen-
sional accuracies. The cost of the product
Polymeric composites and their process- depends upon processing technologies.
ing technologies are discussed in 7 Chaps.
5 and 6 to provide ample understanding The efficacy of processability of advanced
on various properties, parameters of mate- composites is vindicated by the quality of
rials, and processing conditions that deter- the resultant composite product. There-
mine the processability of polymeric fore, 7 Chap. 9 of this book discusses the
composites. 7 Chapter 5 discusses the pro- characterization and testing of advanced
cessability of thermosetting composites, composites with respect to the structure
whereas 7 Chap. 6 discusses the process- and morphology of advanced composites.
ability of thermoplastic composites. Ther- This last chapter gives the complete picture
mosetting composites are considered to be of mechanical, thermal, and viscoelastic
workhorse of composite industries. The behaviours of polymeric composites. This
role and functions of thermosetting matri- will enable the reader to identify and cor-
ces, interaction with reinforcement, and relate the processability aspects of poly-
compatibility with processing technology meric composites, leading to the desired
have been elaborated. On similar lines, the end product. 7Chapter 9 also discusses
roles, interactions, and compatible pro- the structure–property relationship in
cessing technologies of thermoplastic composites.
matrices have been discussed from the
point of processability. This book is focused on the processability
of advanced composites with respect to
The processing of composites is an inten- various processing technologies. It provides
sive study; therefore, the selection of pro- much-needed insight on the processability
cessing technologies for making composite aspects suiting specific processing technol-
products plays an important role for the ogies. This book covers a broad horizon on
desired outcome and properties. The pro- various aspects of processability to enable
cessability aspects of open mould process- the reader to assess and correlate advanced
ing technologies (hand layup, filament composites manufactured by different pro-
winding, tape winding, etc.) are deliber- cessing technologies. This will help stu-
ated in 7Chap. 7. Open mould technolo- dents, engineers, and technologists to select
gies are generally adopted for large right processing technology for processing
components and for costs to be controlled. specific advanced composites.
Closed mould technologies have been
Anup K. Ghosh
New Delhi, India
Mayank Dwivedi
New Delhi, India
VII
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 P rocessability .......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 D imensions of Processability ............................................................................................................ 6
1.3 Influencing Parameters in Processability ..................................................................................... 8
1.4 C lassification .......................................................................................................................................... 10
1.4.1 Polymeric Matrix Composites (PMCs) .............................................................................................. 11
1.4.2 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) ................................................................................................. 11
1.4.3 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) ..................................................................................................... 13
1.4.4 C arbon–Carbon Composites (CCCs) ................................................................................................ 13
1.5 P roperties of Reinforcements .......................................................................................................... 15
1.6 Properties of Matrix Resins ............................................................................................................... 19
1.7 Properties of Polymeric Composites ............................................................................................. 20
1.7.1 Physical and Mechanical Behaviour ................................................................................................. 21
1.7.2 T hermal Behaviour ................................................................................................................................ 21
1.7.3 E lectrical Behaviour ............................................................................................................................... 24
1.7.4 H ygrothermal Behaviour ..................................................................................................................... 24
1.7.5 Chemical and UV Resistance .............................................................................................................. 25
References ................................................................................................................................................ 28
2 Advantages and Applications of Polymeric Composites ......................................... 29
2.1 Advantages of Polymeric Composites .......................................................................................... 30
2.2 D isadvantages of Composites ......................................................................................................... 41
2.3 Applications of Polymeric Composites ........................................................................................ 45
2.3.1 A griculture ............................................................................................................................................... 45
2.3.2 A viation ..................................................................................................................................................... 45
2.3.3 Stealth Aircrafts and Frigates ............................................................................................................. 47
2.3.4 A utomotive and Other Transportation Vehicles .......................................................................... 48
2.3.5 B uilding and Construction .................................................................................................................. 49
2.3.6 C orrosion Resistance ............................................................................................................................ 50
2.3.7 D efence ..................................................................................................................................................... 50
2.3.8 M arine ....................................................................................................................................................... 50
2.3.9 Electrical and Electronic Appliances ................................................................................................ 51
2.3.10 S ports Equipment .................................................................................................................................. 52
2.3.11 H ealthcare ................................................................................................................................................ 52
2.3.12 G eneral Engineering ............................................................................................................................. 53
References ................................................................................................................................................ 55
3 Micromechanics and Macromechanics of Polymeric Composites ...................... 59
3.1 Micromechanics of Polymeric Composites ................................................................................. 60
3.1.1 R ule of Mixtures...................................................................................................................................... 60
3.1.2 M echanism of Load Transfer .............................................................................................................. 65
3.1.3 Failure Modes in Polymeric Composites ......................................................................................... 66
3.1.4 S hort Fibre Composites ....................................................................................................................... 68
3.2 Macromechanics of Polymeric Composites ................................................................................ 70
3.2.1 Analysis of Anisotropic Composite Laminae ................................................................................. 70
3.2.2 O rthotropy in Composites .................................................................................................................. 73
3.3 Performance of Polymeric Composites ........................................................................................ 74
References ................................................................................................................................................ 77
V III Contents
4 Rheology in Processing of Polymeric Composites ....................................................... 79
4.1 F undamentals of Rheology ............................................................................................................... 80
4.1.1 V iscometry ............................................................................................................................................... 81
4.1.2 V iscoelasticity .......................................................................................................................................... 86
4.2 Rheology Aspects of a Polymeric Matrix ..................................................................................... 90
4.3 Rheology in Material Selection ....................................................................................................... 92
4.3.1 Rheology in Deciding Processing Conditions ............................................................................... 93
4.3.2 Rheology of Incorporation of Elastomer ........................................................................................ 94
4.3.3 Rheology in the Dispersion of Fillers ............................................................................................... 94
4.4 Flow Behaviour When Processing Composites ......................................................................... 95
4.4.1 F ibre Aspect Ratio .................................................................................................................................. 96
4.4.2 F ibre Content .......................................................................................................................................... 96
4.4.3 Dependence of Processing on Rheology ....................................................................................... 98
4.4.4 Change of Viscosity with Time and Temperature ........................................................................ 98
4.5 R heology and Processability ............................................................................................................ 99
4.5.1 Optimization of Process Conditions ................................................................................................ 99
4.5.2 D etermination of Processing Window ............................................................................................100
4.5.3 Fibre Dispersion and Orientation .....................................................................................................104
4.5.4 T roubleshooting .....................................................................................................................................105
4.6 Influence of Rheology on Composite Products ........................................................................107
4.6.1 P roduct Shrinkage .................................................................................................................................108
4.6.2 S urface Properties .................................................................................................................................109
4.6.3 Rheology in Structure–Property Correlation ................................................................................109
4.7 R heological Measurement ................................................................................................................109
4.7.1 V iscoelastic Measurements.................................................................................................................109
4.7.2 S teady Shear Rheology ........................................................................................................................111
4.7.3 E lastic Behaviour ....................................................................................................................................113
References ................................................................................................................................................115
5 Processability of Thermosetting Composites..................................................................117
5.1 Interface and Interphase in Thermosetting Composites.......................................................118
5.1.1 G lass Fibres ..............................................................................................................................................119
5.1.2 C arbon Fibre ............................................................................................................................................121
5.1.3 A ramid Fibres ..........................................................................................................................................123
5.2 Physical Forms of Reinforcements .................................................................................................123
5.3 T hermosetting Composites ..............................................................................................................124
5.3.1 C uring of Thermosetting Composites .............................................................................................125
5.3.2 Selection Criteria for Thermosetting Matrices ..............................................................................128
5.3.3 Processability of Commonly Used Thermosetting Matrices ....................................................133
5.3.4 Selection Criteria for Reinforcement ...............................................................................................137
5.4 Methods to Improve Processability in Thermosetting Composites ..................................140
5.4.1 A dsorption and Wetting ......................................................................................................................140
5.4.2 C hemical Bonding .................................................................................................................................141
5.4.3 M echanical Adhesion ...........................................................................................................................141
5.4.4 I nterdiffusion ...........................................................................................................................................142
5.4.5 E lectrostatic Attraction ........................................................................................................................142
5.5 P rocessability of Thermosetting ‘Green Composites’ .............................................................144
5.6 Processability of Smart and Intelligent Composites ...............................................................146
5.6.1 Processability of Smart Composites ................................................................................................146
5.6.2 Processability of Intelligent Composites ........................................................................................146
References ................................................................................................................................................148
IX
Contents
6 Processability of Thermoplastic Composites ...................................................................151
6.1 Interface and Interphase in Thermoplastic Composites........................................................153
6.2 Forms of Reinforcements for Thermoplastic Composites .....................................................154
6.3 Models for Mechanical Properties in Particulate Thermoplastic Composites ..............154
6.3.1 Models Applicable to Tensile Strength ...........................................................................................154
6.3.2 Models Applicable to the Tensile Modulus ....................................................................................155
6.4 T hermoplastic Composites ...............................................................................................................156
6.4.1 I ntimate Contact ....................................................................................................................................157
6.4.2 A utohesion...............................................................................................................................................159
6.5 Selection Criteria for Thermoplastic Matrices ...........................................................................160
6.6 Processability of Commonly Used Thermoplastic Matrices .................................................164
6.7 Selection Criteria for Reinforcement ............................................................................................168
6.7.1 Properties Driven Selection Criteria.................................................................................................169
6.7.2 Processing Technology Driven by Selection Criteria ..................................................................170
6.8 Methods to Improve Processability in Thermoplastic Composites ...................................171
6.9 Processability of Thermoplastic Green Composites ................................................................172
6.9.1 Processability of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastic Matrix Composite ....................173
6.9.2 Processability of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Biodegradable Matrix Composites .................174
6.9.3 Processability of Synthetic Fibre- Reinforced Biodegradable Matrix Composites .............174
References ................................................................................................................................................176
7 Processability in Open Mould Processing of Polymeric Composites ................179
7.1 O pen Mould Processing Technologies .........................................................................................181
7.1.1 C ontact Layup .........................................................................................................................................181
7.1.2 S pray Layup .............................................................................................................................................184
7.1.3 F ilament Winding Technology ...........................................................................................................186
7.1.4 P olar Winding Technology ..................................................................................................................189
7.1.5 A utomated Tape Winding Technology ............................................................................................190
7.1.6 V acuum Infusion (VI) Technology .....................................................................................................192
7.1.7 T hermoforming ......................................................................................................................................194
7.1.8 O pen Casting Process ...........................................................................................................................194
7.1.9 P repreg Processing ................................................................................................................................194
7.2 Processing-Induced Defects in Polymeric Composites ..........................................................198
7.2.1 Unprepared Reinforcement or Matrix .............................................................................................198
7.2.2 I mproper Storage Conditions ............................................................................................................198
7.2.3 Wrong Placement of Fibres .................................................................................................................198
7.2.4 I mproper Volume Fractions ................................................................................................................199
7.2.5 U ncontrolled Temperature, Pressure, and Time ...........................................................................199
7.2.6 Improper Closing of the Mould .........................................................................................................199
7.2.7 D emoulding Temperature ...................................................................................................................200
7.2.8 P ost-fabrication Finishing Operations ............................................................................................200
7.3 F uture Composite Manufacturing Technologies ......................................................................200
7.3.1 A utomatic Filament Winding .............................................................................................................200
7.3.2 Automatic Tape Layup (ATL) Machine .............................................................................................201
7.3.3 Automatic Ply Cutting (APC) Machine ............................................................................................201
7.3.4 T ow Placement .......................................................................................................................................201
References ................................................................................................................................................202
8 Processability in Closed Mould Processing of Polymeric Composites .............205
8.1 C losed Mould Processing Technologies .......................................................................................206
8.1.1 M atched Die Moulding ........................................................................................................................206
X Contents
8.1.2 C ompression Moulding .......................................................................................................................210
8.1.3 A utoclaving ..............................................................................................................................................212
8.1.4 Pressure Bag and Vacuum Bag Moulding ......................................................................................214
8.1.5 I njection Moulding ................................................................................................................................216
8.1.6 P ultrusion .................................................................................................................................................217
8.1.7 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM) ..................................................................219
8.2 Processing-Induced Defects in Polymeric Composites ..........................................................222
8.2.1 Unprepared Reinforcement or Matrix .............................................................................................222
8.2.2 I mproper Storage Conditions ............................................................................................................222
8.2.3 Wrong Placement of Fibres .................................................................................................................223
8.2.4 I mproper Volume Fractions ................................................................................................................223
8.2.5 U ncontrolled Temperature, Pressure, and Time ...........................................................................223
8.2.6 Improper Closing of the Mould .........................................................................................................224
8.2.7 D emoulding Temperature ...................................................................................................................224
8.2.8 P ost-fabrication Finishing Operations ............................................................................................224
8.3 F uture Composite Manufacturing Technologies ......................................................................224
8.3.1 Stitched Preform Followed by VARTM .............................................................................................225
8.3.2 C ontinuous Sandwich Panel...............................................................................................................225
8.3.3 3 -D Weaving ............................................................................................................................................225
8.3.4 M echatronics ...........................................................................................................................................225
8.3.5 C o-curing Technology ..........................................................................................................................226
References ................................................................................................................................................227
9 Characterization and Testing of Polymeric Composites ...........................................229
9.1 S ample Preparation .............................................................................................................................230
9.2 C haracterisation ....................................................................................................................................231
9.2.1 T hermal Characterization ....................................................................................................................231
9.2.2 M orphology .............................................................................................................................................236
9.3 T esting ......................................................................................................................................................238
9.3.1 P hysical Testing ......................................................................................................................................238
9.3.2 M echanical Testing ................................................................................................................................240
9.3.3 E lectromagnetic (EM) Performance .................................................................................................247
9.4 Advanced Test Methods for Composites .....................................................................................249
9.4.1 R adiography ............................................................................................................................................250
9.4.2 U ltrasonic Testing ..................................................................................................................................251
9.4.3 E ddy Current Testing.............................................................................................................................253
9.4.4 A coustic Emission Testing ...................................................................................................................254
9.4.5 S hearography ..........................................................................................................................................255
9.4.6 V ibrational NDT ......................................................................................................................................255
9.4.7 T hermography ........................................................................................................................................256
9.4.8 H olography ..............................................................................................................................................257
9.5 S tructure–Property Relationship ...................................................................................................258
9.5.1 I nfluence on Thermal Properties .......................................................................................................258
9.5.2 Processability in Structure–Thermal Property Relationship.....................................................260
9.5.3 Influence on Mechanical Properties ................................................................................................261
References ................................................................................................................................................263
Supplementary Information
Index ........................................................................................................................................................ 267
