Private Problem, Public Solution: Affirmative Action in the 21st Century

81 Pages·2015·5.14 MB·English

LLoouuiissiiaannaa SSttaattee UUnniivveerrssiittyy LLaaww CCeenntteerr
LLSSUU LLaaww DDiiggiittaall CCoommmmoonnss
Journal Articles Faculty Scholarship
2000
PPrriivvaattee PPrroobblleemm,, PPuubblliicc SSoolluuttiioonn:: AAffiffirrmmaattiivvee AAccttiioonn iinn tthhee 2211sstt
CCeennttuurryy
Darlene Goring
Louisiana State University Law Center, [email protected]
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Goring, Darlene, "Private Problem, Public Solution: Affirmative Action in the 21st Century" (2000). Journal
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PrivaPtreo blemP,u bliSco lution:
AffirmatiAvcet ioinn t he2 1sCte ntury
by
DarlenCe. G oring•
[W]ew istho deilts hpneo titohna stt riscctr utiissn tyir citnt heory,
butf atailn fac.t..T h.eu nhapppye rsstienocfeb otthh ep ractice
andt hel inegrinegff ecotsfr aicadli csriminaatgiiaonns mti nority
groupst hiicnso u ntriysa nu nforttuern eaailty, gaonvde rnmenits
notd isqluiaifedfr oma ctinignr esponest o it.1
INTRODUCTION
I.
At somep oindtu rintgh en inety-nyiearnseb etweetnh eU niteSdt ast e
SupremeC ourts' decisiionPn l essvy.F erguso2 ann di tdse csiino inA darand
ConstructIonrcs.v,. Pena3,t hec oncepotfsr ac,e coloarn de thniyc wietre
eradicatceodn isattsu tiorneallelvyfa anctt oirnts h eE quaPlr otcetiopnar adiogrm ,
sot hea rgumnetg oes.C4l earliym,m utbalec hraactiesrtiscusc has r acec,o loarn d·
• AssistParnotf essoofLr a w,U niversoifKt eyn tucCkoyl leogfeL aw,B .B.AH.o,w ard
UniversJi. tDy.a; n dL .L..MN,o rthwesUtneirnv ersSicthyo oolfL aw.I w oulldi kteot hank
LeonarSd. R ubinowifotrz h icso nitnuesdu pprota nde ncoureamgentI.w ouladl sloi kteo
thanMka rkT .H ursatn dC arol Pfoarr trhiesi vra luable reassesairsctha nce.
1 AdaranCdo nstructIonrcvs..P, e na5,1 5U. S2. 002,3 (71 995)(0'JC.o)n.n or,
2 PlessyF evr.g uso1n6,3U . S5. 37( 189o6v)e,r rublye3 d4 U7. S4. 83( 1954).
3 AdaranCodn sturctors, Inc5.1,U5 . S. 2a0t0 .
4 Seeg eneraSlelaynM . ScotJtu,s tice RedMienfionreidt:y -TaSrcgheotleadr sahnidtp hse
StrugAgglaei nRsatc iOaplp ress6i2oU nMK,C L.RE6v5.(1 1 99).4I nt hiasr tiPcrlofee ssor
Scotatr gues thSautp rtehmeCe o urtc'osl -orbliinndt eertpartioofnt heE quaPlr otection
Claus"ep erpetuaa ctoensc eopft rajcuisalt itchea its d efinebdy tdhoem inannto,tt he
outsigdreo,u p alneda dtsot hec onitnuerda cioaplp erssioofnA frican-AimcearnsI.d"a. t
668H.e s imilaarrlgyu etsh aatr aec-neutcroanls titnualtp airoadiigsmb otjhu diciaanldl y
sociamlilsyl eadiHneg .n otes that:
Thes trateogfcy o lobrl indneissb se inqgu estioansei ds t he
assumpttihoanat c olor-bsloicnide wtiyl ble t hee quvialeonfta r acially
equaaln dj ust socTiheotsype. r ofesscionlgo r-blincdonnefsusst eh e
recognitoifor na ce, anddi fftehree ntchea rta cmea kesw,i thr acism.
Theriesa ni ncrearseejde ctoifto hne concepttor etchoagtn izei str haec e
equivaloefbn eti nagr acisTth.i psr esumptiisbo eni nsgt ooodn i thse ad
by outsidersw haintdew sh o haveb egunt ol istteont hes torioefs
209
AKRON LAWR EVIEW [Vol3.3 :2
210
ethniccointtyi tnoup el aiym portraonltne osto nliynt heA mericjaunrs ipruedntial
lancdaspeb,ui tn a lfl aceotfsA mericasno ctiy.e Howeve,t hconepto fa olro­
_ � � � _�
_
blinsdo ci,e5at syf irasrttc iulatbeyJd u stiHcaer lamn h isd 1ssenotpmmg1 omn
Ples6s hya,bs e comaep opuljaurs tififocraa ttitoanc krienmgde iaelf fortss etehka t
outseirdsw;e p ositth at tnoro etc ognainzdea cknowlerdagceie st od eny
thepo sitivvael uoefb einAgf ric-aAnmerainco rn on-wihte.
Race-coinosucsnreesjse tchtaess similatmioodneiilsn th erteon t
col-obrlindannedsi sn steaargdu foersa cculturaantdri eocno gniotfti hoen
valuoef b einrga icaldliyf fereInttt r.e adtisf ferernecscept efulalnyd
recoigznetsh arta cpel ayasc ritircoalilen d eveloppienrgs pectiIvte s.
advoactetsh te elloifno gu tsindaerrra tibvye s tohpep resgsreodu apn dt he
hearionfgt hesset oribeyts h ep rivileggreodu pI.t s uggestthsao tu r
sociegtoaalsl h oulndo tne cessariblety o m oveb eyonrda cbeu ti nstead
toc omet ov aluteh ed iffertehnacrtea cmea kes.
Ida.t 6 93-94.
5 Fora d iscuisoson ft hme eritosft hceo lor-bcloinntsdi tutsieogene neraNlilcyh,o ldaesB .
Katzencbh&a BurkMea rshalNlo,t C oloBrl inJdu:s Btl inNd.,Y TIM. ES, Feb2.2 ,1 998§,
6( Magaziant4e )2 .
Morer ecenthloywe,v era, m ajorhiatsye dgetdo warpdr onounctihneg
Consittut"icono lbolri ndc,o"m incgl osteoh oldilnegsg liatitohnau ts es
anyr acicalla ssifiucnactoitnoisnt utiRoneaald.i ntgh eE quaPlr oetction
Clautseop rotewchti teassw elals b lacfrkosm racicalla ssifiicsa ttioon
focusu pona situatthiadoton e nso atn dn ever ehxaiss tienod u rs ociety.
Unfortautneliyt,c astdso ubutp ona llf orms ofr acicalla sisciaftion,
howevbeern igann dh owevefro cusuepdo np romotiinngt egratIifo n.
sucahr eadiinsfg i nalaldyo ptbeyda majoriotfty h Ceo uritt, wopuultd
ac osntitutipoanloalvl e r gaolvle rnemntaalf firmataicvtei porno grams
ande venp uts imilparri vaptreo gramisn d angeorf b einlga ebled
"dicsriminataogariyn"ws hti teasn dt herefionvr ieoa tlioonfe xistciinvgi l
righltesg isla-tpieornh atphsue l timsattuep idity.
Id.
Buts eeM arqueLzu ndiTnh,e C alflo ra C olor-BLalwi,n 3d0 C OLUMJ.L. . S&o cP.R OBS.
407(1 997)M.a rquerze ejcttsh eu seo ft hes triscctr utiannya lytsoid se tmeirnet he
consttuitiovnaalli doifrt ayc -ebasperde fereanncdei sns,t eaadr gutehsa "tg overnmenrtaacle ­
baseadc tisohno ualdl waybse i mpemrissei.b"lI da.t 4 08H.e notetsh at:
Ac ol-obrlilnadw w ilnlo to nlhye aolu rr acidailv idieti, sa lstoh se urest
proctteiofno trh er ihgtso fa lmli norgirtoyu pOsn.e n eeldo onko f urther
thaKno remattsosu e et haatsl onags r accea nb eu seadt ailtcl a,nb e
usefdo �irl lI.ti st ragtihcat th see arfcohrr aicaelq ualihtayst urneidn to
ab attolrer acicalla sfisciatiaonnd the diovfri isgtihsao nnd b enefoint s
thabtaS IS.
Ida.t 4 56.
� SeeP less1�6-U3,. Sa.t 5 59.
Buti nv iewo ft hec onstit'ui tnti hoene yeo ft heJ aw,t he ret· sm· th "1 s
2000] PRIVAPTREO BLEPMU,B LSIOCL UTION 211
toe limitnhaceto en tineuffiencogtfd s i scraitmiioonnnr acainaedlt hnmiicn ority
groups.7
Altuhgoht he coonfcr eapctne e utrailsii mtpyl iicnti hte C ourt's
interproefat c aotlioorn- cbolsnitnidt uitdtio oennso, tm eahno wevtehrar,ta coer
ethniccaintnbyoe ut s eadsa c onstniatluplteyirio mssicbrliet eirnti haoeln l ocation
ofr esrocueOsn8t .h ceo ntriamtre ya,nt sh iautfs erda,c e-bcalsaesadst iifmoiuncsst
countrys unpoe ridoorm,i narnutl,i cnlga sosfc itizeTnhse.ri esn oc aste
hereO.u rc onstituitsic oonl or-blainndnd e,i thkenro wsn ort olerates
classaemso ngc itizeInnrs e.s peocftc ivriilg hatlscl,i tizaernees q ual
beforet hel aw.
Id.
7 Segee nelryWa olodenv .B oarodf R egenotfsU nivS.y s.e,t3 ,2F .S upp.21d3 70( S.D.
Ga.1 999)G;r atvz. B ollingeeta r,l 1.8,3 F .RD..2 09( E.DM.i ch1.9 98)G;r uttcvr.
Bollin1g6eF r.,S upp.27d9 7( E.MDi ch1.9 98)S;m itvh. U niversoifWt ays hinogntL aw
Schoo2lF,.S upp.21d3 24(W .DW.a sh1.9 98)P;o dberevs.kK yir wa3n8,F .3d1 47( 4Ctihr .
h
(5t
1994H)o;p woovd. S tatoefT ex.7,8F .3d9 32 Cir1.9 96D)e;R ondvc.R egenotfsU niv.
ofC al., P6.225d2 20( Cal1.9 81R)e;g enotfsU niversoifCt ayl v.. B ak.kc, 438 U.2S6.5
(1978D)e;F univs.O degaar4d1,6U .S3.1 2( 1974S)e.a esl oN ichodleaBs.K atzenb&a ch
BurkMea rshaNlol,tC oloBrl inJdu:sB tl inNd.,TIM YES.,F eb.22 ,1 998§, (6M agazine)
at4 2:
Affirmative actiporno grawmhse,t hteora voipdr esebnita osr t or emedy
theef fecotftsh recee nturioefds i scriminaagtaiionAnsf tr inc-aAmericans,
are race-basTehdep. r obletmhse sye etko c uraree andh avbee enr acc­
based.Th ey stemf romh istory-ptohlei tieccaolon,m ica nds ocial
dominatoiofbnl acbkysa w hitmeaj orittyh arte gardbelda cakssi nferior.
Undoubtetdhleyr aer eb lackwsh oa reb iaseadg ainwshti teasn dw ho,
givetnh ep owerto d os ow,o uldd iscrimiangaatient shte mO.f c ourse,
givetnh ep oweri,t w oulbde a sm oralwlryo nfgo r tthoed mos oa si th as
beenf orw hitesB.u td isrciminatbiyob nl ackasg ainwshti teiss n ot
Americap'rso lbem.I ti sn ott hep robletmh aptr edmoinantwlhyi te
legislatbuurseisn,e sasnedus n iverssieteitkeos s olvteh rouagfhf irmative
actiporno grams.
Id.
8 Them odemo rigoifna colorl-inbsdo ciectaynb et racteod t"hIHe a vea Dreams"p eech
delivebryeD dr .M artiLnu theKri ngJ,r o nA ugus2t8 ,1 963a tt heL incoMlenm oriianl
WashingtDo.nC,. H e stattehda "tIh avea dreamt hamty foulri tcthliel drweinlo ln ed ay
livien a n atiwohn erteh ewyi lnlo t jbued gebdy t hec oloorft hesirk ibnu tt hec onteonft
thecihra ractDeEr.B"O RAGHIL LAN STRAUABFR,I CAN AMERICVAONI CE2S11 ( 1 996)D.r .
King'wso rdcso ntintuoree sonatthreo ughAomuetr icasonc iebtuytt, h ceo lor-bsloicnide ty
envisiobnye Ddr .K ingc oulndo th avei ncludae nda tiownh eret hev estigoefrs a cial
discriminwaetrieeo lni minawtietdh oaus ti multanreeocuosg niotfit ohnei mpactth at racial
discriminhaatdoi ontnh e A fricAamne ricsaonc iety.
[Vo3l3.: 2
212 AKRON LAWR EVIEW
be atbowl iet hstthasent dr ciocnts titsuctriuotntaihlnai ytst hceo rnerstotnhee of
�
Courti'nst erpreotfa tthieEo qnu aPlr otectCiloanu sfe theourteenth
?
_ _
AmendmentT.h9i sa nalytpiacraald irgemq uiarne ms1 t1al fomfda m g
consuttiitoncaolmlpye ljluisnfctgiai tifoonr utsheoe ft hrea ce-bcarsieitdoe nr.
SupreCmoeu rcta slea wi sc le-atrh eg oaolf e liminadtiisincmgri noanto ir
remedytihnepg r eseenftfce tosf p asdti scirniamtoprrayc tciacnes sev rea sa
compeljluisnitgci aftfioorn utshoeef r acbea-secdl asisciaftioPnrsoo.fo fb road
'0
socieditsaiclmir natwiiolnnlo w ti thsctoasnntdi tutsicornuatAlid ndyi.t iotnhael ly,
discirniamtcoornyd umcutsht a vbee epne orrfmebdy tphaer itmylp ementtihne g
race-braesemeddyS .t riscctr utailnsmyoa ndattehsat th rea ce-braesmeeddb ey
narrotwaliyl otroa eddd retshshe a rrme sulftraonmst u cpha sdti smcirniatory
conudct.
Notwiatnhdsittnhgse c opanedb reaodftc hon flicvtiienwggse e nratbeyd
thipsar aditghmCe,o uhratc sl eaermblrya ctehdir sa cliyna elutirnatle traportnoei f
thset rsiccrtu tinayn idtn ecpsootrr,a ititen dtt oh Eeq uaPlr otecptairoand iTghme.
goaolft hAirst iicsnl oett o e ntienrtt oh adte babtuett,o w orwki thtihnae n laytical
paratmeercsu rreensttlayb lbiyst hheCedo urttoa ddreusnsrse olviesds ueFso.r
exampilste h,re a cinaelultyir natle rproeftt ahsteti orsnic crtu ttiesnsyots trtihcatt ·
mosti,fn oatl rla,c e-basedw iclbrlesi ttreircikaIe fsn o?i, st he Courtt ow illing
recoigzaneb roardaenro gfec onstitupteiromniasljlsuyis btliefi cfaottrih oen su se
ofr aec-bascelda ssificatTihoiAsnr st?i1ec1ml ber actehsCe ourcto'ls olri-nbd
intetraptrioefot nh Eeq uaPlr otecCtliaounas ste hset adanradg aiwnhsitc rha ce­
baseadff irmaatcitviepo rfener encweislb lem easuraenddp, r oposstetrsea gies
aimeadts atistfhyhiisneg i genhetcdo nsuttiitosntadalan rd.
9 U.S.C ONSTa.m endX.I V,§1 .
N�st ast?e �mak�ll ore nforacney l aww hichs halalbr idgteh pe rivileges
_
orunmu mheso fc 1t1zoefnt sh eU niteSdt atensor;s halaln yS tatdee prive
anyp ersoonfl ifel,i berotryp ,r operty, wdiutehp oruotc eosfsl awn; or
dentyo a nyp ersowni thiintjs u risdictthieeo qnu aplr oetctioofnt hel aws.
10 PursuatnoJt u stiPcoew ello'psi niionnR egenotfUs n iverosifCty al oirnfiva. B akked 438
U.S2.6 5a nu nresolqvueeds tiroenm airnesg ardtihngce o ntiendpu ermissiboifldi itvrys ity
�a1 cSom peilnlgj ustificafotri tohneu seo fr ace-based .cIrdi.t eria.
SeeW yganvt.J� cksoBn �o.fEd uc.4,7 6U .S2. 672,8 6( 1986()O 'ConnJo.rc,o ncurrngi)
Andc ��amlny othmtgh eC ourhta ss aitdo danye cessafroirleyc lotshees
_
pos1sb1htthya tth e Cowuirltfil n do thegro vernmentailn terewshtisc h
haveb eerne liuepdo ni nt hleo wecro urbtust w hichha veno tb eepna ssed
onh erteo � es uffiicent"liym portaonr"t c"o mpellitnosg u"s tatihneu se
ofa ffirmatiavcet ipoonl icies.
Id.
2000] PRIVATPER OBLEMP,u BLISCO LUTION 213
TheC ourtr'asc ianleluyt rianlt erpretoaftt hieFo onu rteeAnmtehn dment
hasg iveonp ponentosf r ace-bapsreedfe rencseisg nificaamnmtu nitiionnt heir
effotrote sl iminaaftfei rmaatcitviepo rno gramAsl.t houtghhae ttaocnkr ace-based
affirmataicvtei hona so ccurreodn m anyfr ontst,h iAsr ticwlielf lo cuso nt hef ield
on higheerd uctaion.R1e2c enjtu diciaanld l egliastiavtet acokns race-based
affirmataicvtei opnr eferenbcyec so llegaensdu nviersitaicerso ss ctohuen tarrye
beginntiont ga kteh etiorl Dlu.r intgh ep asfetw years, htahsbe ereen a t reemndous
decreaisnet hen umbero fr aciaanld e thnimci noritsyt udenetnsr olliinna gn d
successfcuolmlpyl eticnogl leagned p rofessisocnhaolo 1l3 s.I n additiotnh,e
12
Alsnoo tteh aott hehrasv lei mittehdea inra lyosfia sf firmaatcitvipeor no gratmots h fiee ld
ofh igheedru catiSoeneg. e neraWlILlLyIAM, G.B OWEN& DEREKB OK, THE SHOAFTP HEE
RIYERL:O NG-TERCMO NSEQUECNESO FC ONSIDERINRGA CEIN COLLEGAEN D UNIVERSITY
ADMISSIOxNxSv( 1998).
This stiusdl yi mitiends everiamlp ortarnets pectFsi.r swte, are
concernesdo lewliyt hhi gheedru catiIonno .u rv iewo,n ep roblewmi th
mucho ft hed ebaotvee arf finnavteia ctiiosnt haitlt u mptso getahl earr ge
numbeor fh ighldyi sparaarteea asn dp rogramrsa,n ginfgr om the
awardionfcg ontratcomt isn or-iotwynebdu sinestsope osl icgioevse rning
hirinagn d promotitoont hea dmissiopnosl icioefs c olgleesa nd
univeiresisTt.h ea rgumentthsap te rtatioon n ea remaa yo rm ayn ota pply
ino thearr easI.ti sn otewortfohry e,x maplet,h atth ep laintiinft fhse
Piscatacwaasye w,h ichc enteroend t hel ayoofffa whitsee condary
schootle achteoro,pk a inisnt hefiinra blr ietfoa stkh Seu premCeo urt not
toc onfusteh ej ob-speciisfiscu tehsa cto nfronttehdep laintwiiftfth h e
muchb roadearn,d r athdeirff eresnte,to sf c onsideratthiaoftna sc e
educatiionnsatli tuitnid oencsi diwnhgo mt oa dmit.
Id.
13 Seeg enraellyT,h eD eclinEinnrgo llmeonfBt lsa ckisnS chooolfAs r chtiectu2r3eJ ,.
BLACKHSI GHEERD .3 5( 1999);AdahmeCno/lrvin"eW,h enth Fei elidsL eveilnC alifornia,
MinorSittyu denatrse" Cascadoiuntog fT opS chooalnsd i nttoh Se econTdi erI.sT his
GoodF orT hem?"T,I MEJ,u l5y, 1 999a,t 3 0;N ancyC antoArffi,rm ativAec tioWnh:a t
Michigcaannr eallleya frrno m CalifornOipai,n ioDne,t N.e wsM,a y 17,1 999a,tA JO;
BlacEkn rollmeDnrtospa t HarvLaawr dS choo2l3,J .B LACKHSI GHEER D.1 35 (1999);
MinorEinttyr antotC sa lifoMrneidaS chooDlosw n3 2P erceMnEtD,. & HEALTHA,p r2.6 ,
1999a,v ailaibnl1 e9 99W L 1039183K7e;n netRh. W eissM,i norAityd missiaotn s UC
Almosatt1 99L7e veEld ucatiSohna:rD pr oph ad followoefda ffiremnda tiavcet iloans t
yearT.o pc ampusheasv en otfarlelbyo undLe.dA,T. IM ES,A pr3., 1 999a,t A l;K enneth
R.W eissU,C B oarEdx pectteoOd k D aviPsl atno A dmiTto p4 %E ducatiAonno:t h3e,r6 00
studean ytes awro ulbde e ligitboal tet enDda.v ihsa ss aimdi norietnyrl olmewnotu ld
increabsueto, ffi ciaslasy i mpacwto ulbde m inimaLl.,A TI.M ES,M ar. 19,1 999a tA l;
KareBnro wn,S tudenptrso teUsMta sss hioftn a dmissiBoOnSsT,O GNL OBEA,p r4., 1 999,
atB2M;ary AnnR oseCro,l leAgdemi ssiloanwh asm ixed reAsUuSlTtINAs M,. -STATESMAN,
Dec.2 8,1 998a,t A 1;J ayneN obleS ubleMri,n orietnyr ollmiennctr seeasa tT exas
214 AKRON LAWR EVIEW [Vol3.3 :2
chaelnlget or ace-based affiarmcattiiopvnre o gramiss b einsgy stetmiaclaly
�
spearheadbeyd w ell-fundceodn,s eartvivpeu bliicn eresgtr oupwsh o are
.
underwrilteigneagffl o rttoes l iminraatcee -baafsfeidr maatcitviepo rno rgamsf rom
thel andscoafpt eh eA mericcaonl leagnedu niverssyistty.e 1mI4n r espontsote h ese
welolr gnaizelde gaaln dp oliticchaall lentgoae fsf irmataicvtieo tnh,iA sr ticle
attempttosr e-introadnu icmep ortapnlta yeirn tot hee quati-otnh ef ederal
governmenInt .a na reaasv ittaolt hpeo litaincdas lo caila dvancemoefnr ta ciaanld
ethnmiicn oriatisee dsu catiwoenm ,u ssth iofutre m phasifrso m fightiindn ivg i dual
battlteops r esertvhee sper ogramsa,n di nstelaodo kt oC ongrefsosrr emedial
measurtehsa ste etko e radicaap treo bltehma itso fn ationimaplo arntce.15
univetriseBisu t schsotoisllhslo wd iversdiitsyp aristtiaertsee,p osraty DsA,L LAMSO RNING
NEWSO,c t2.3 1,9 98a,tl A;L indWae rthei&m elCarud oi SanchTehzeg, r owtihn t he
numbeorf b lacLkast,i naonsdo themri noirtiaetUs . Sc.o lleagnedsu n ivershiatsbi eeesn
decilninfgo nre aral yde cadeA. newr eporretl easteodd asya ytsh alto wearc adecm i
achievemengtr aadnuda traitoenfs r om hisgchh oaorlep atrlrye sponsTibhlese t.u dayls o
conucdletsh atth er olbla cikn A ffirmatiAvcet iionns omes tatieshs a vian cgh lilienffge ct
acrotshsne a tiAoLnL, THINGCSO NSIDERSEepD2t,4.1 , 9 98, avian1i 9l9aW8bL l e3 646569;
KenneWtehi sFse,w eBrl acaksn dLa tinos EantrU oCl Eld ucaiotnD:e clianreses harpest
att opc ampuswehsi,ln uem berisn creaastIe r viRniev,e rsainddSe a ntCar uzL,. AT.I MES,
May2 11,9 98a,tA 3.
14 Att hfeo refrooftn htbe a ttclhea llenrgaicneg- baafsnfenida tiavcet iporno griasmT sh e
Cenetrf oIrn diviRdiugah(lt" sC IRC"I)Ri. san o-nfor-proftip ublic ilnatwfie rmr tehsatt
drawssu ppofrrot ma n umbeofra ttornwehyosw orfko Cr IRon ap rboo nboa siTsh.e
missiooftn h ilsa fiw rm ist od efe"nidin vdidruiaglh wtist,ph a rtiecmuplhaaros nic si vil
rightfsr,e edoofsm p eetchhfre,e ee xercirseel iogafin odsn e,x uhaalr asslmaewnC.t I R
providfersel ee graelp resentdaetsieorncv litinoegw nh tocs a nnootth erowbitsaei anf foorr d
legcaolu nasnewdlh osien divirdiugaahlrtt esh reenaetdC.I"R ( lamsotd ifSiepet.d9 ,1 999)
<htpt://www.cir-usa.org/rnission.htm>.
Fora criticeavla luaotfti hoegno alosf t hiosrg anoinz,sae teThi eodoCrreo sAsf,r ican­
AmercianO ppourntitiineH si gheErd uctaio:Wn hatA ret heR aciGaola lfso Trh eC enter
foIrn dividRuiaglh t2s3?J ,B. LA CKS HIGHEERD 9.4 ( 19)9.9
�
15.S eeD r.A 'lclRioab inHseo�n, PerpueatinIgnq eualtyiP: lesvs.Fy e rguasnodnt he
DilemmoafB lacAkc cetsosP ubliacn dH igheErdu cati2o7nJ, . &L .E DUC4.7( 1998).
Int htei msei ntcheBe r ownd ecisciaolnlu epdo n stthaett oeds i smantle
theisre gregatsiyosntiesomtfs p ublaincd hihgere ducation, the
educatigoaniaonlfsA fricaAnm erichaanvsbe e enno thingo fs hort
monuemntIanl1 .9 94A,f ricAamne ricraencse imvoerdue n dergraduate
andg radudaetger etehsa ant a nyt imhei stoarnydm, o sotf t hese
indiviwdeurael spt rho�edc tso fTW is.Th e 1Wis arneo wt he major
produocfebr lsa pcrko fessioannaddlo sc torIan1t 9e9s4a.,p proxi�ma te!
834,0A0f0r icAamne ricawnesr een rolilne4 d- yeuanrd ergraduat
insttiiotnuasn,d6 15,00i0nc ommunictoyl leg1e1s1., 0A0f0r ican
Americwaenrsee n rolliendg raduate wshcihcrho eoplr,e sae 6n6t ed
2000) 215
PRJVA TEP ROBLEMP,U BLISCO LUTION
ThiAsr tcilwei lelx polret hoer iignosf t hCeo urtc'oslo rl-ibnidn terpretation
oft heF ourteeAnmtehn dmenta,n dt her olteh atth iisn teertpartipolna yisnt he
deveplmoenotf n ewb arriaegrasni stc hallnegesto r aec-basaefdf irmaatciitvoen
progra.mP sarItIo f t hiAsr tcilter actehsed eveplmoenatn da pplicatoifto hnes trict
scruttiensytt oe valtueta hec onsttiitounaloifbt oyt ihn viioduasn db enignr acial
classifiactoins.P arItI eIxa mineJsu stPiocwee llp'osst iiotnh arta cicalla sisciaftions
useda sr emedimaela surmeasy overcomteh ep resumptoifoc no ntsitutional
invaliadsistoyc iawtiettdhh eu seof r acea-sbecdl asficsaitiso.In nt hsic ontetxhte,
Courrte coigznetsh atth ec ontinuiemdp acotf p asatn dp resednistc mriintaory
practisceersv aessa b arreirt ot hea biiltoyf r aciaanld etmhniinco rittoie eqsu ally
partitceii pnta heA mericasno cipaoll,i tiacnadl ,e conpormoiccse s.
ParIVt oft hsiA rticfloecs ueson w hethethre s triscctr uttiensymt a yb e
satisfibye idm plmeentatioofCn o nrgessilolnmyaa ndatreda cbea-sde remedial
programBsy. d isintugisihngt hea ppilcatioofnt hes triscctr utitneys t used to
evaulatmeu niciapnadls tatreem edieafolfr tfsro m the modreef erensttiaanld ard
§516
usetdo e valuaCtoen gresisonallmya ndatepdr ogmrsa,I arguteh at oft he
FourteeAnmtehn dmenti,n c oncewritt thh ee nforcempeontw ersse fto rtihnT itle
VIo ft heC ivRiilg htAcst 1of9 6(4h eerintaefrre fertroea sdT itVleI )17,a u thorizes
Congretsods e termiwnhee thdeirs criinmatioortn h ee ffecotfsp asdti srcimniation
contintoui en fluetnhcere a ciaanlde thnciocm psoitoino fe ducatiionsntailt utions
withinf iteholefd h igheedru ctaioInf.c onvincpirnogoo ffd iscriminiasft oiuonnd ,
Congremsasyi mplementr emediraalc- ebasepdro gmrsat oi nrceasteh en umbero f
raciaanld e thnimci noryi gtroupm embersw ithibno thp ubliacn dp rivate
eductaionianls titutthiaotn sr eceivef unfdedienrga.l
perceicnnrt eaosveet rh per evidoeuacsd eO.v ret hsiasm e petrhieo d,
numbeorfb lcaksi np roesfsiosnchaolor los efr om I3 ,0t0o02 2,00I0n.
they easr betweyeena rofs1 985a nd1 993t,h enu mbero fA frican
Americawnhsor ceeivetdh bea choer'ldse gereiscn erasbeyd8 percen,t
and twhhosore e ceitvhemeda setr'sd egree4 2pb eyr ceInn1t 9.9 t5h,e
numberof d octlod reagreaweasdr edt oA fraincA meiracnrs ecahed an
all-tihmieg, rh siing 17p erceonvtet rh pere vioyuesa frr,o m1 095t o
12,87.
Ida.t6 2-63.
16
U.SC.O NSTa.me n.dX IV,§ 5 .( "TheC ognresssh ahlalv peo wert oe nforcbey,
approprlieagttiesi loan,p rotvhioesn iosf t hiatrsi ec.l")
17 Title VoIft hCei vRiiglh stA cto f1 96p4r oivedst hta" [np]eor sionnt hUen itSeatdt es
shaolnl ,tg hroeu nodf r acceol,o orr,n a itonoarlii gnb,ee xclufdreodpm ar tictiinpoi an, be
denitehdbe e nfeitosf, boes ru bjetcotd eids crimiunnadteairno ypn r ogroaram ct itvyi
receiFveidnaeglfir nanicaals issatnec.4"2 U .S.§C2 000(d1 964).
AKRON LAWR EVIEW [Vol3.3 :2
216
IIT.H E COLOR-BLICNODN STITUTIO-N
DEVELOPMENTO FT HES TRICTS CRUTINTYE ST
Theg uaratneeosf t heE quaPlr octteioCnl auses1e8r vaes t hef oundation
upon whicthh eC ouretv lautaest her olteh arta cicalla ssificaptliayo nsith ne
alloactioofns ocietrailg hatnsdp rviileges1.9T hisCl auspero vidiensp ,e rtinent part,
tha"t[ no] Statseh al.l. d.en yt oa nyp ersowni thiint jsu risdictthieoe nq ual
protectoifto hnle aws.T"o2e 0ff etcuatthee p rotectaifofnosr dbeytd h er ourteenth
Amendmentt,h eu seo f racea-sbedc lassificaatltihoonusg,h enxopter ssly
prohibi"tmeudsb,te a naylzedb ya revieiwng courtu ndesrt riscctr uti.n"y2T1h is
heigehntedle veolf s crutdiniydn ota lwayesx isAtl.ht ough thel anguagoeft he
FourteeAnmtehn dmenrte prseentaes dig nificantev olutiionn tlheeg aplro tectoin
afofrdeidn ititaoAl frliyc anA mericanst,h2e2S upremeC ourti'nsi tiinatle rpretation
18
TheS upremCeo urt dnooetls o oukp onra cbe-asecdl assifaitciownist fha vorS.e eS haw
v.R eno5,0 9U .S6.3 06,4 3 (199)3("[c]latsisoinfiocsfca iitzensso leolnyt heb asis orr ace
are by theivre rnya turoed ioutsoa freep eoplweh osei nsiutttioanrsc f oundeudp ont he
doctrinoefe quatlyi.")
19S eea lsNoi choldaesB K.a tzencbha& BurkMea rshalNlo,t C olor BlindB:l iJnuNds,.t Y .
TIMES,F eb. 12929,8 §,6 (Magazinaet) 42.
Ifp robleomfs raacree tos obleevd ,t hemyu stb es eeans t her ac-ebased
problethmesy a re.I ti st hiass peocftt hec onrtovertshya rte cednetc isniso
oft heS upremCeo urhta veb rougihntt qou esitonT.h eE quaPlr otection
Clausoeft h1e 4lhA mendmenwta sd esignedi nstuor teh afotr mers lvaes
andt hediers cendawnetrse e ntittloe dt he slaemgaepl r otectaiswo hn iet
citizeLnisk.e t he1 3tAhm endmenatb oliisnhgs lvaerya ndt he1 5th
guaranteetihnerg i ght tor evgroadtlee sosf r acei,tw asc leralya nd
unequivocaailmleyda tr aciparlo blemisn-t oday'tse rmniolog"yr ace
based.T"h eE qualP rotectCiloanu shea sn everb eenv ieweda s
preveinntgc lassificaotfc iiotni zfoern gso vernmentraela osnsa sl onag s
thel egislcaltiavisefi scatiwoans" resaonablien"t ermosf i tpsu rpose.
Id.
20
U.SC.O NSTa.m endX.I V.
21
AdaranCdo nstcrtuo,rI sn.cv .P ena5,1 5U .S2.0 0,2 27 (1995)R.e lianocne a strict
contsitutieomvnaa llu atioofrn a cicalla scsaiitfionosr iignatweist hl anguafrgoem su prcmc
Co urotp ·i mo·n s zra· ayaHs"h vi. Ub. S,.a ndK orematvs.uU .S.:
� � ':
[I]stou lben otetd�, b egini tht,h aatl lle garle srtictiwohnisc chu rtail
.
thec ivniglh tos�f a smglrea cigarlo uapr ei mmediatesluys peTchta. ti s
nott os ayt haatl suchre stricatrieuo nncso nsittutionIatil s.t os ayt hat
cour.tm sus ts ubje.tc hte mt .ot hem. o str igisdc urtinyP.re ssgi npu bIl·C
neces.smay t tsyo mettmeJsU Stltfheye xisntceeo fs uchr estrincs.tr, ia oci· a 1
antagomnsemv ecra n.
Korematvs.uU .S3.2,3 U2.1S4.,2 16( 1994).
22
Priotro t her atifiactioonf t heF ourteeAnmteh ndmenti n1 868,t her ightosfb lack
2000] Pruv APTREO BLEPMu,B LSIOCL UTION 217
oft hersieg hwtassn octo nssetinwti tht hAem endmentf'acsi aglu arantoefee qsu al
protection.
FormeCrh ieJfu stiEcaerW la rrecnha raecrtziedt hSeu premCeo urte'asyr l
interreptoant iotfh eF ourteeAnmtehn dmneta sfl aweda ndw ithofuoter sitg.h2I3n
reflecotnit nhgeh itsorriocl et hoCef o urhte,c oncdleudt hat:
thec orut'fsu nadmentaelr rowra s in denyCionngg reas s
meaninlg rfoulien F ourteeAnmtehn dmenetn focrementT.he
Negrfoa cead v ariye otfb arri-esrosm e obvioaunsds omeq uite
subt-lien h is strugtgolb ee comae f ulaln de quamle mbero f
Amercians ociye,at ndt hfee dercaolru twse rsei pmlnyo etq uipped
tou nderttahkeeb r oadr angoefp rogranmesc esstaotr eya dro wn
tohsbea rerri.sT hosceo urctousl dp roecedo nloyn a c asbey-c-ase
basiinst heeifrf orttors e laatbes trnaocitto nosfe qualiyt witthh e
reawlo rlodf racprijeauld icdei,s cmriinatioann dd irsuts.t The
judicicaoln ucslino iPnl essvy.F ergusotnh aste pairoanto ft he
racseas tiiestdfh ceo nisutttiocnoaml mando fe qaulyid tramiactally
illruasttetdh aatb tsarcjtu idcicaoln cepwtislnl o nte cessarreiflleyc t
three awlo rl.d24
Americaanlst,h oufgrhe efdr om slabvye trhye T hirteeAnmthe ndmenitn 1 865w,e re
severelliym iteFdo.re xampl'e",[ l]iibnet rhteFy o'u rteeAnmtehn dmenfotr, whicthh e
Statweesr teo e nsureeq uaplr otieocnwt asfo,r B lacAkm ericapnrsi,m arai frleye dofrmo m
slavearnyd a ltlh ec ommon incideonfts sl averSyl.a vehsad b eend eniefrde edomo f
movemenatn dn ow,w itht heE quaPlr otectiColanu set,h is asopfel citb erwtays t ob e
accordteoBd l acAkm ericaenvse rywhienrt eh ela nd.C"H ESTEJRAM ES ANTIEAUT,H E
INTENDSEIDG NIFICANOCFTE H EF OURTEENATMHE NDMENT2 54(1 997)S.e ea lsJoA MEES.
BONDN,O EASYW ALKT OF REDEOM (1997J)O;S EPBH. J AMEST,H ER ATIFICATIOOFNT HE
FOURTEENATMHE NDMENT( 198)4.
23E ARLW ARRENF,o urteeAnmtehn mdentR:e trospaencdPt r opsectin,T HEF OURTEENTH
AMENDMENTC:EN TENNIAVLO LUME2 12( BernarSdc hwaretdz.,1, 9 70)S.e ea lsAo. L EON
HIGGINBOTHAMJ,R .S,H ADESO FF REEDOMR:A CIAPLO LITIACNSDP RESUMPITONOSF T HE
AMERICANLAELGPROCESIS 8 I (1 996)("AltthhoeCu oguhr te'rsr onecoounss tructioofnt he
FourteeAnmtehn dmenptr evaifloeordv earh alf-centtuhroey v,e rwhelmcionngs entsoudsa y
ist haPtl eswsays a nu ntenabsltaet emoefnt th ela w tsheaittn m otioanne rao fo ppression
fromw hicohu rn atiosnt ihlals nfoutl rlye cove"r)e d.
24 EARLW ARRENF,o urteeAnmtehn mdentR:e trospaencdPt r opsecti,nT HEF OURTEENTH
AMENDMENTC:E NTENNIAL VOLUME2 122,2 5( BernarSdc hwartze,d ., 1970)
Ther emarkafbelaet uorfte h eS upremCeo ur'tsF ourteeAnmtehn dment
decisiionnt sh el atnei neteeanntdeh a rltyw enthi ceetnturiiste hsa t they
failteogd r astph ei mportaonftc hene ationc'osmm itmetnote qualaintdy
thei ncreasidnesgpleyr aptlei gohftt heN egroP.e rhaptsh ifsa iliinsg