Table Of ContentPRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
AND MEMORY
In this landmark volume from 1976, Robert Crowder presents an organized
review of the concepts that guide the study of learning and memory.
The basic organization of the book is theoretical, rather than historical or
methodological, and there are four broad sections. The fi rst is on coding in memory,
and the relations between memory and vision, audition, and speech. The second
section focuses on short-t erm memory. The third is loosely organized around the
topic of learning. The fi nal section includes chapters that focus on the process of
retrieval, with special attention to recognition and to serial organization.
Crowder presumes no prior knowledge of the subject matter on the part of the
reader; technical terms are kept to a minimum, and he makes every effort to intro-
duce them carefully when they fi rst occur. Principles of Learning and Memory is
suitable for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses.
Robert G. Crowder (1939–2000) was an outstanding and pioneering psycholo-
gist in the great functional tradition of American psychology. During his career at
Yale University, he made major contributions to many topics in cognitive
psychology, including memory, learning, the psychology of music, and the
psychology of reading. He received numerous academic honors and many of his
students went on to have signifi cant careers in the fi eld. His bibliography includes
landmark papers and volumes, including P rinciples of Learning and Memory (1976),
which was the fi rst attempt to summarize the fi eld in over two decades.
Psychology Press Classic Editions
The P sychology Press Classic Editions series celebrates a commitment to excellence
in scholarship, teaching, and learning within the fi eld of Psychology. The books
in this series are widely recognized as timeless classics, of continuing importance
for both students and researchers. Each title contains a completely new introduc-
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the fi eld might go from here and why these books are as relevant now as ever.
Written by recognized experts, and covering core areas of the subject, the P sychology
Press Classic Editions series presents fundamental ideas to a new generation.
The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Classic Edition)
By James J. Gibson
Essentials of Human Memory (Classic Edition)
By Alan Baddeley
Uncommon Understanding (Classic Edition): Development and
Disorders of Language Comprehension in Children
By D.V. M. Bishop
Essential Cognitive Psychology (Classic Edition)
By Alan J. Parkin
Human Cognitive Neuropsychology (Classic Edition)
By Andrew W. Ellis and Andrew W. Young
Lev Vygotsky (Classic Edition): Revolutionary Scientist
By Fred Newman and Lois Holzman
The New Psychology of Language (Classic Edition): Cognitive and
Functional Approaches To Language Structure, Volume I
Edited by Michael Tomasello
The New Psychology of Language (Classic Edition): Cognitive and
Functional Approaches To Language Structure, Volume II
Edited by Michael Tomasello
Principles of Learning and Memory (Classic Edition)
By Robert G. Crowder
Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development (Classic Edition)
Edited by Patricia M. Greenfi eld and Rodney R. Cocking
Psychologists on Psychology (Classic Edition)
By David Cohen
PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING AND
MEMORY
Classic Edition
Robert G. Crowder
Classic Edition published 2015
by Psychology Press
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Psychology Press
27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA
Psychology Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Taylor & Francis
The right of Robert G. Crowder to be identifi ed as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without
intent to infringe.
First edition published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 1976
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014954814
ISBN: 978-1-84872-502-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-84872-503-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-74694-4 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Refi neCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk, UK
To A. W. Melton
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CONTENTS
Introduction to the Classic Edition xi
Preface xv
1 Background Comments and Three Analytic Concepts 1
Stage Analysis 4
Coding Analysis 12
Task Analysis 21
Summary and Comment 26
2 Iconic Memory 29
Sperling’s Research on Iconic Memory 30
Evolution of a Process Model for Visual Memory Tasks 35
Properties of Iconic Memory 40
Summary 43
3 Echoic Memory 45
Demonstrations of Echoic Memory 45
Recognition Methods 46
Sampling Methods 47
Masking Methods 53
Further Properties of Echoic Storage 60
Summary and Comment 64
4 Recoding by Speech in Short-Term Memory 67
The Concept of Recoding 67
viii Contents
Recoding of Visual Stimuli through Speech 70
Summary 87
5 Nonverbal Memory 88
Eidetic Imagery 89
Reproduction from Memory of Forms 94
Functional Characteristics of Images in Short-Term Memory 95
Visual Imagery in Speeded Matching 96
Modality-Specifi c Interference 104
Visual Imagery in Long-Term Memory 109
Memory for Pictures 109
The Pegword Technique 112
Paivio’s Dual-Trace Theory 118
The Qualitative Nature of Images 125
Summary 129
6 Primary Memory 131
Process Dualism in Memory 132
Historical Background on Process Dualism 132
Modern Arguments for Process Dualism in Memory 136
The Measurement of Primary Memory 145
Individual Differences and Primary Memory 149
The Nature of Primary Memory 151
Is Primary Memory Phonological? 151
Transfer between Primary and Secondary Memory 155
Alternatives to Transfer 164
More on the Recency Effect in Free Recall 169
Summary 171
7 Forgetting in Short-Term Memory 173
Theories of Forgetting 173
Decay Theory 174
Displacement and Interference 181
The Brown–Peterson Task 193
Retroactive Inhibition in Short-Term Memory 194
Proactive Inhibition in Short-Term Memory 199
Hypotheses for Proactive Inhibition 206
Conclusions 214
8 The Interference Theory of Forgetting in Long-Term Memory 216
Early Evolution of Interference Theory 217
Consolidation Theory 218
Contents ix
McGeoch’s Response-Competition Theory 223
The Unlearning Hypothesis and Spontaneous Recovery 228
The Third Stage: Developments Since 1961 236
Verifi cation of the Spontaneous Recovery Hypothesis 237
Tests of the Response-Set Suppression Hypothesis 239
Verifi cation of the Single-List Proactive-Inhibition
Mechanism 245
Locus of Interference at the Level of the Individual
Association 250
Independent Retrieval 251
Stimulus-Encoding Theory 255
Conclusions 259
Chapter Summary 259
Interference Theory Today 260
9 The Effects of Repetition on Memory 262
The Apparent Gradualness of Learning 262
All-or-None Memorization 263
Analytic Value of All-or-None Processes 269
Effects on Recall of Spacing Repetitions of Individual Items 271
Spacing of Repetitions in Free Recall 272
Theoretical Alternatives for Distribution and Lag Effects 276
Experimental Tests of the Alternative Theoretical
Explanations 280
Cued Recall in Continuous Paired-Associate Learning 289
Single-Item Short-Term Memory Techniques 307
Intraserial Repetition in Immediate-Memory Span 311
Summary of Repetition Effects on Recall 312
The Effects of Repetition on Judgments of Recency and
Frequency 312
Summary 318
10 The Organization of Memory in Free Recall 320
Measurement of Organization in Free Recall 322
Slamecka’s Independent Trace Storage Hypothesis 340
Summary 349
11 Retrieval 351
Sternberg’s Memory-Scanning Paradigm 352
Some Explicit Models of Retrieval 353
Sternberg’s Original Experiment 355
The Code of Comparisons 359
