Table Of ContentPrinciples of International Environmental Law
Thethirdeditionofthisclassictextbookofferscomprehensiveandcriticalcommentaryoninternational
environmentallaw.Itfullycoversthekeytopicsofthecourseandisclearlystructuredtoincludethe
historyandframeworkinwhichinternationalenvironmentallawexists,keyareasofregulationand
implementation,linkstootherareasoflawandfuturedevelopments.Ithasbeenupdatedtoincorporateall
thelatestdevelopmentsintreatyandcaselaw.Extensivefeedbackonpreviouseditionsresultsina
re-structuringofmaterial,includinganewpartfocusedonlinkagetootherareasofinternationallaw
includinghumanrights,internationaltradeandforeigninvestment.Thereisalsoanewchapteronfuture
developmentschartingthedirectionsinwhichthesubjectismoving.Specialistauthorswritingonoceans,
seasandfisheriesandbiodiversityaddtotheexpertiseofthetwoprincipalauthorsforanauthoritative
overviewofthesubject.
PhilippeSandsisProfessorofLawandDirectoroftheCentreonInternationalCourtsandTribunalsin
theUCLFacultyofLaws.Heisalsoapractisingbarrister,withextensiveexperiencelitigatingcasesbefore
theInternationalCourtofJustice,theInternationalTribunalfortheLawoftheSea,theInternational
CentrefortheSettlementofInvestmentDisputes,andtheEuropeanCourtofJustice.
JacquelinePeelisanAssociateProfessorattheMelbourneLawSchool,withabackgroundin
environmentalscienceandlaw.Shehastaughtmanycoursesinenvironmentallaw,international
environmentallawandclimatechangelaw,andhaspublishedwidelyinthefield.
Principles of International
Environmental Law
THIRD EDITION
Philippe Sands
Jacqueline Peel
with
Adriana Fabra
Ruth MacKenzie
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge,NewYork,Melbourne,Madrid,CapeTown,
Singapore,Sa˜oPaulo,Delhi,MexicoCity
CambridgeUniversityPress
TheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB28RU,UK
PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyCambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork
www.cambridge.org
Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9780521769594
#PhilippeSands,JacquelinePeel,AdrianaFabraandRuthMacKenzie2012
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception
andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,
noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithout
thewrittenpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.
FirstpublishedbyManchesterUniversityPress1995
SecondeditionpublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress2003
ThirdeditionCambridgeUniversityPress2012
PrintedintheUnitedKingdomattheUniversityPress,Cambridge
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN978-0-521-76959-4Hardback
ISBN978-0-521-14093-5Paperback
CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceor
accuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredto
inthispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuch
websitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate.
Contents
Foreword xxi
Prefaceandacknowledgmentstothefirstedition xxv
Prefaceandacknowledgmentstothesecondedition xxix
Prefaceandacknowledgmentstothethirdedition xxxi
Tableofcases xxxiii
Tableoftreatiesandotherinternationalinstruments xxxvii
Listofabbreviations lxiii
PART I THE LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
1 The environment and international society: issues, concepts and definitions 3
Theenvironmentalchallenge 3
Thebasisfordecision-making:science,economicsandothervalues 5
Science 6
Economics 7
Othersocialobjectives 8
Sustainabledevelopment 9
Theinternationallegalorder 10
Thefunctionsofinternationallaw 10
Sovereigntyandterritory 11
Internationalactors 13
Theenvironmentandinternationallaw:definingterms 13
Challengesforinternationalenvironmentallaw 15
Furtherreading 16
Internationalenvironmentallaw:texts,articlesandhistory 16
Sourcesofinternationalenvironmentallaw 18
Primarymaterials 18
Internationalenvironmentaljurisprudence 18
Journals 19
Internationallawgenerally 19
Internationalenvironmentallaw 19
Internationalenvironmentalco-operationandpolicy 19
Scienceandthestateoftheenvironment 20
Environmentaleconomicsanddevelopment 20
Websites 21
v
vi Contents
2 History 22
Introduction 22
FromearlyfisheriesconventionstothecreationoftheUnitedNations 23
FromthecreationoftheUnitedNationstoStockholm:1945–72 26
UNCCUR 27
The1972UnitedNationsConferenceontheHumanEnvironment 30
Stockholmfollow-up 33
FromStockholmtoRio:1972–92 34
Post-Stockholm:treatiesandotherinternationalacts 34
1978UNEPdraftPrinciples 36
1981MontevideoProgramme 37
1982WorldCharterforNature 37
1980WorldConservationStrategy/1991‘CaringfortheEarth’Strategy 38
TheBrundtlandReportandtheReportoftheLegalExpertsGroup 39
Conclusions 40
UNCED 40
TheRioDeclaration 42
Agenda21 44
BeyondUNCED:trendsanddirections 45
WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment 47
Conclusions 49
3 Governance: states, international organisations and non-state actors 50
Introduction 50
States 51
Internationalorganisations 52
Introduction 52
Historyofinternationalorganisationalarrangements 53
UNCED 53
Thefunctionandroleofinternationalorganisations 55
Globalorganisations 56
UnitedNations(www.un.org) 56
UNGeneralAssembly 58
UNEnvironmentProgramme(www.unep.org) 60
UNDevelopmentProgramme(www.undp.org) 62
InternationalLawCommission(www.un.org/law/ilc) 63
UNCommissiononSustainableDevelopment(www.un.org/esa/dsd/csd/csd_index.shtml) 63
OthersubsidiarybodiesestablishedbytheGeneralAssembly 65
EconomicandSocialCouncil(ECOSOC) 67
SecurityCouncil 69
TrusteeshipCouncil 69
InternationalCourtofJustice(www.icj-cij.org) 70
UnitedNationsspecialisedagenciesandrelatedorganisations 70
FoodandAgricultureOrganization(www.fao.org) 70
UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(www.unesco.org) 72
InternationalMaritimeOrganization(www.imo.org) 72
InternationalLabourOrganization(www.ilo.org) 73
WorldMeteorologicalOrganization(www.wmo.int) 73
InternationalCivilAviationOrganization(www.icao.int) 74
vii Contents
UNIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization(www.unido.org) 74
WorldHealthOrganization(www.who.int) 74
InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(www.iaea.org) 75
WorldBank,InternationalMonetaryFund,andWorldTradeOrganization 76
Co-operativearrangements 76
Otherglobalinstitutions 77
Regionalandsub-regionalorganisations 77
EuropeandtheOECD 77
Africa 81
AmericasandtheCaribbean 82
AsiaPacific 82
Organisationsestablishedbyenvironmentaltreaties 83
Non-stateactors 86
Scientificcommunity 87
Environmental,healthanddevelopmentalorganisations 88
Legalgroups 88
Corporatesector 89
Individualsandindigenouscommunities 90
Themedia 91
Conclusions 92
4 International law-making and regulation 94
Introduction 94
Treaties 96
Environmentaltreaties 98
Thetreaty-makingprocess 98
The1969ViennaConventionandlegalissuesrelatingtotreaties 99
Interpretation 100
Entryintoforce 102
Reservationsandinterpretativedeclarations 103
Relationsbetweeninternationalagreements 105
Amendment 107
Otherinternationalacts 108
Actsofinternationalorganisations 108
Conferencedeclarationsandotheracts 110
Customaryinternationallaw 111
Statepractice 112
Opiniojuris 114
Treatiesandcustom 115
Persistentobjector 116
Regionalcustom 117
Generalprinciplesofinternationallaw 117
Equity 119
Subsidiarysources 120
Introductiontoregulatoryapproaches 121
Directregulation 122
Environmentalqualitystandards 122
Productstandards 123
Emissionsstandards 123
viii Contents
Processstandards 123
Economicinstruments 124
Chargesandtaxes 126
Jointimplementationandtradeablepermits 127
Deposit-refundsystems 128
Subsidies 128
Enforcementincentives 129
Liabilityandcompensationfordamage 129
Trademeasures 129
Investmentincentives 130
Environmentalagreements 130
Consumerinformationincentives 131
Integratedpollutioncontrolandintegratedenvironmentalmanagement 131
Conclusions 133
5 Compliance: implementation, enforcement, dispute settlement 135
Introduction 135
Implementation 138
Nationallaw 138
Nationalcompliance 139
Reporting 143
Internationalenforcement 144
Enforcementbystates 144
Damagetoastate’sownenvironment 145
Damagetotheenvironmentofanotherstate 146
Damagetotheenvironmentinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction 146
Enforcementbyinternationalorganisations 151
Enforcementbynon-stateactors 155
Enforcementinthenationalcourts 155
Internationalenforcement 157
Internationalconflictresolution(settlementofdisputes) 159
Introduction 159
Diplomaticmeansofdisputesettlement 159
Negotiationandconsultation 159
Mediation,conciliation,fact-findingandinternationalinstitutions 161
Non-complianceprocedures 163
Inspectionproceduresofmultilateraldevelopmentbanks 167
NAFTACommissiononEnvironmentalCooperation 168
Legalmeansofdisputesettlement 169
Arbitration 169
Internationalcourts 171
InternationalCourtofJustice 171
Contentiouscases 172
Advisoryopinions 174
Interimmeasuresofprotection 174
UNCLOSandITLOS 175
WTODisputeSettlementBody 177
EuropeanCourtofJusticeandCourtofFirstInstance 179
Humanrightscourts 180
Conclusions 181
ix Contents
PART II PRINCIPLES AND RULES ESTABLISHING STANDARDS
6 General principles and rules 187
Introduction 187
Principlesandrules 188
Sovereigntyovernaturalresourcesandtheresponsibilitynottocausedamagetotheenvironmentofother
statesortoareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction 190
Sovereignrightsovernaturalresources 191
Sovereigntyandextra-territoriality 192
Responsibilitynottocauseenvironmentaldamage 195
Conclusion 200
Principleofpreventiveaction 200
Co-operation 203
Sustainabledevelopment 206
Introduction 206
Futuregenerations 209
Sustainableuseofnaturalresources 210
Equitableuseofnaturalresources 213
Integrationofenvironmentanddevelopment 215
Conclusion 217
Precautionaryprinciple 217
Polluterpaysprinciple 228
OECD 230
EuropeanUnion 231
Principleofcommonbutdifferentiatedresponsibility 233
Commonresponsibility 234
Differentiatedresponsibility 234
Conclusions 236
7 Atmospheric protection and climate change 238
Introduction 238
Milestonesinthedevelopmentofatmosphericregulation 239
TrailSmeltercase 239
Nucleartesting 240
Customarylaw 242
UNCEDandWSSD 243
Urbanandtransboundaryairpollution 245
1979UNECEConventiononLongRangeTransboundaryAirPollutionanditsProtocols 246
1979LRTAPConvention 247
1984MonitoringandEvaluationProtocol 248
1985SulphurProtocol 248
1988NO Protocol 249
x
1991VolatileOrganicCompoundsProtocol 251
1994SulphurProtocol 253
1998AarhusProtocolonHeavyMetals 254
1998AarhusProtocolonPersistentOrganicPollutants 255
1999GothenburgProtocoltoAbateAcidification,EutrophicationandGround-LevelOzone 255
1991Canada–USAirQualityAgreement 257
Sulphurdioxide 257
Nitrogenoxides 258
