Table Of ContentPrinciples of Exercise
Neuroscience
Principles of Exercise
Neuroscience
Edited by
Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce
Principles of Exercise Neuroscience
Edited by Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce
This book first published 2020
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Copyright © 2020 by Dawson J. Kidgell and Alan J. Pearce and
contributors
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN (10): 1-5275-5813-4
ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-5813-7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ...................................................................................................... xii
Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Alan J. Pearce, PhD
Acknowledgements ................................................................................. xiv
Chapter 1 .................................................................................................... 1
The Nexus between Neuroscience and the Science of Exercise
Alan J. Pearce, PhD
1. Background ....................................................................................... 1
1.1 The neuroscience of human movement. .......................................... 2
1.2 What is ‘motor control’? How does motor control relate within
the larger discipline of exercise science? ........................................ 4
1.3 Motor learning and skill acquisition: similarities and contrasts
to motor control ............................................................................... 6
1.4 The challenge of translating neuroscience to exercise science ....... 8
1.5 How to get the best from this book ................................................. 8
References ............................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2 .................................................................................................. 10
Levels of Motor Control
Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Alan J. Pearce, PhD
2. Background ..................................................................................... 10
2.1 Structural arrangement of the brain contributing to movement .... 11
2.1.1 Structure of the cerebral cortex ............................................ 11
2.1.2 The brain stem ...................................................................... 12
2.2 Transmission of cortical motor signals ......................................... 13
2.3 Motor functions of the cerebellum ................................................ 13
2.3.1 Anatomical and functional organisation of the cerebellum .... 14
2.3.2 Afferent and efferent pathways of the cerebellum ............... 15
2.4 Motor functions of the spinal cord ................................................ 16
2.4.1 Organisation of the spinal cord ............................................. 17
2.5 Types of reflex pathways .............................................................. 18
2.5.1 Skeletal muscle reflexes ....................................................... 19
2.6 Hierarchical organisation of motor control ................................... 21
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2.7 Motor units, fibre types, and recruitment physiology ................... 23
2.7.1 The motor unit ...................................................................... 23
2.7.2 Physiological classification and recruitment ........................ 24
2.8 Principle of motor unit recruitment ............................................... 25
2.9 Motor unit synchrony .................................................................... 26
2.9.1 Quantifying the degree of motor unit synchrony .................. 27
2.9.2 Motor unit synchronization and human motor control ......... 27
2.9.3 Motor unit synchronization in upper and lower limb
muscles .................................................................................... 28
2.10 Summary ..................................................................................... 29
References ........................................................................................... 29
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................. 32
Techniques Contributing to the Understanding of Neuroscience
in Exercise
Alan J. Pearce, PhD and Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD
3. Background ..................................................................................... 32
3.1 Electroencephalography (EEG) .................................................... 33
3.2. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) ................................................ 34
3.3 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) .................................... 35
3.3.1 Single-pulse TMS ................................................................. 36
3.3.2 Paired-pulse TMS ................................................................. 38
3.4 Voluntary activation and neural drive ........................................... 40
3.4.1 Interpolated twitch and VA ............................................. 40
TMS
3.4.2 H-reflex ................................................................................ 42
3.4.3 V-wave ................................................................................. 44
3.5 Summary ....................................................................................... 45
References ........................................................................................... 46
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................. 53
Principles of Neuroplasticity in Exercise
Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD and Ashlyn K. Frazer, PhD
4. Neuroplasticity ................................................................................ 53
4.1 Mechanisms of neuroplasticity ..................................................... 53
4.2 Short and Long-term potentiation ................................................. 54
4.2.1 NMDA receptor activation and synaptic plasticity .............. 54
4.2.2 Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neuroplasticity ......... 55
4.3 Experimentally-induced neuroplasticity ....................................... 56
4.3.1 Transcranial direct current stimulation and neuroplasticity .... 57
4.3.2 NIBS and functional connectivity ........................................ 58
Principles of Exercise Neuroscience vii
4.4 Is the induction of neuroplasticity via NIBS important for motor
performance? ................................................................................. 60
4.4.1 Is the magnitude of neuroplasticity and motor performance
improvement related to the BDNF polymorphism? ................. 63
4.5 Is homeostatic plasticity important for motor performance? ........ 64
4.6 Use-dependent neuroplasticity ...................................................... 67
4.7 Summary ....................................................................................... 68
References ........................................................................................... 69
Chapter 5 .................................................................................................. 76
Non-invasive Brain Stimulation and Exercise Performance
Shapour Jaberzadeh, PhD and Maryam Zoghi, PhD
5. Introduction ..................................................................................... 76
5.1 Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation ....................................... 77
5.2 The mechanisms behind tDCS effects during stimulation
(online effects) .............................................................................. 78
5.3 The mechanisms behind tDCS effects after the termination
of stimulation ................................................................................ 79
5.4 Montages for application of tDCS: The conventional montage .... 80
5.4.1 HD-tDCS montage ............................................................... 80
5.4.2 Other tDCS montages ........................................................... 81
5.5 tDCS as a stand-alone technique ................................................... 82
5.6 tDCS as a priming technique ........................................................ 82
5.7 Halo sport tDCS device ................................................................ 82
5.8 The effects of tDCS on EP ............................................................ 83
5.9 Ethical considerations for the use of tDCS for enhancement
of EP .............................................................................................. 85
5.10 Summary ..................................................................................... 86
References ........................................................................................... 86
Chapter 6 .................................................................................................. 92
Neural Control of Lengthening and Shortening Contractions
Jamie Tallent, PhD and Glyn Howatson, PhD
6. Background ..................................................................................... 92
6.1 Shortening and Lengthening Contractions .................................... 92
6.1.1 Benefits of lengthening contractions .................................... 93
6.2 Motor control of lengthening and shortening muscle contractions . 93
6.2.1 Muscle .................................................................................. 94
6.2.2 Spinal .................................................................................... 94
6.2.3 Cortico-Spinal ...................................................................... 95
6.3 Adaptations to shortening and lengthening resistance training ..... 97
viii Table of Contents
6.4 Summary ..................................................................................... 100
References ......................................................................................... 101
Chapter 7 ................................................................................................ 107
Neural Adaptations to Strength Training
Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD
7. Background ................................................................................... 107
7.1 Acute neural responses to strength training ................................ 107
7.2 Using TMS to assess the neural responses to strength training ..... 108
7.3 MEPs are acutely facilitated following a strength training
session ......................................................................................... 109
7.4 Intracortical facilitation is acutely enhanced following a strength
training session ............................................................................ 110
7.5 Why does strength training increase corticospinal excitability
and intracortical facilitation of the motor cortex? ....................... 111
7.6 Long-term neuroplastic adaptations to strength training ............. 114
7.7 Changes in strength following 2-8 weeks of strength training .... 116
7.8 Long-term strength training does not affect motor threshold or
MEP amplitude ............................................................................ 117
7.9 Long-term strength training reduces motor cortex mediated
inhibition ..................................................................................... 118
7.10 Changes in spinal cord plasticity with strength training ........... 120
7.11 Changes in H-reflex and V-wave amplitude following strength
training ........................................................................................ 120
7.12 Changes in motor unit activity following strength training ...... 122
7.12.1 Single motor unit behaviour following strength training .. 123
7.12.2 Motor unit synchronization following strength training ... 124
7.13 Summary ................................................................................... 125
References ......................................................................................... 125
Chapter 8 ................................................................................................ 133
Neuromuscular Responses to Fatiguing Locomotor Exercise
Callum Brownstein, PhD and Kevin Thomas, PhD
8. Background ................................................................................... 133
8.1 The role of exercise intensity and duration on neuromuscular
responses to fatiguing exercise .................................................... 135
8.2 Neuromuscular responses to “all-out” exercise .......................... 136
8.3 Neuromuscular responses to severe intensity, short-duration
exercise ........................................................................................ 139
8.4 Neuromuscular responses to sustained exercise below critical
power ........................................................................................... 141
Principles of Exercise Neuroscience ix
8.5 Neuromuscular responses to high-intensity intermittent
exercise ........................................................................................ 144
8.6 The effect of exercise modality on neuromuscular responses
to locomotor exercise .................................................................. 146
8.7 Effect of exercise duration and intensity on recovery ................. 148
8.8 Origin of prolonged impairments in contractile function ............ 151
8.9 Origin of prolonged impairments in voluntary activation ........... 152
8.10 Summary ................................................................................... 153
References ......................................................................................... 153
Chapter 9 ................................................................................................ 160
Sex Differences in Neuromuscular Function and Fatigability
Paul Ansdell, PhD and Stuart Goodall, PhD
9. Introduction ................................................................................... 160
9.1. A brief history of the scientific study of sex and performance .. 160
9.2. Sex differences throughout the motor pathway .......................... 161
9.2.1. Pre-motor processes .......................................................... 162
9.2.2. Intracortical and corticospinal neurons .............................. 163
9.2.3. Motor unit properties ......................................................... 164
9.2.4. Contractile apparatus ......................................................... 165
9.3. Functional neuromuscular sex differences ................................. 165
9.3.1. Maximal force production ................................................. 165
9.3.2. Force steadiness and accuracy ........................................... 166
9.3.3. Fatigability ........................................................................ 166
9.4. Female-specific neuromuscular function ................................... 169
9.4.1. The influence of hormones in vitro ................................... 169
9.4.2. In-vitro evidence ............................................................... 169
9.4.3. Functional changes across the menstrual cycle ................. 170
9.5. Summary .................................................................................... 173
9.5.1. What do we know already? ............................................... 173
9.5.2. Where do we go from here? .............................................. 174
References ......................................................................................... 174
Chapter 10 .............................................................................................. 185
Motor Control Responses following Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage
Carlos Hermano Pinheiro, PhD and Alan J. Pearce, PhD
10. Background ................................................................................. 185
10.1 How does DOMS occur? .......................................................... 186
10.2 Functional outcomes affected by DOMS .................................. 188
10.3 Neuromuscular and motor control changes following DOMS .. 189
10.4 Neurophysiological studies in DOMS ...................................... 191
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10.5 Summary ................................................................................... 192
References ......................................................................................... 192
Chapter 11 .............................................................................................. 196
Neuromuscular Alterations and Motor Performance in Healthy Aging
Jakob Škarabot, PhD
11. Background ................................................................................. 196
11.1 Alterations in the central nervous system with advancing age .... 197
11.1.1 Alterations at the level of motor unit ................................ 197
11.1.2 The influence of synaptic inputs from spinal and
supraspinal centres ................................................................. 197
11.1.3 Reflex inputs to motoneurons ........................................... 198
11.1.4 Cortical inputs to motoneurons ........................................ 199
11.2 Reduction in motor performance in healthy aging adults ......... 200
11.2.1 Motor performance during maximal contractions ............ 200
11.2.2 Control of muscle force output during submaximal tasks .. 204
11.2.3 Fatigability ....................................................................... 206
11.3 Summary ................................................................................... 208
References ......................................................................................... 209
Chapter 12 .............................................................................................. 222
Cross-education
Ashlyn K. Frazer, PhD and Dawson J. Kidgell, PhD
12. Background ................................................................................. 222
12.1 Evidence of cross-education ..................................................... 222
12.2 Exercise prescription parameters .............................................. 223
12.3 Mechanisms of cross-education ................................................ 225
12.4 Interventions to enhance the cross-education effect .................. 228
12.4.1 Transcranial direct current stimulation and cross-
education ................................................................................ 228
12.4.2 Electromyostimulation during cross-education ................ 229
12.4.3 Whole-body vibration (WBV) training and cross-
education ................................................................................ 230
12.5 Cross-education and neuromuscular injury ............................... 231
12.6 Summary ................................................................................... 232
References ......................................................................................... 232
