Table Of ContentPRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
Used to train generations of social scientists, this thoroughly updated classic text covers the latest research tech-
niques and designs. Applauded for its comprehensive coverage, the breadth and depth of content is unparalleled.
Through a multi-methodology approach, the text guides readers toward the design and conduct of social research
from the ground up. Explained with applied examples useful to the social, behavioral, educational, and organiza-
tional sciences, the methods described are intended to be relevant to contemporary researchers.
The underlying logic and mechanics of experimental, quasi-experimental, and nonexperimental research strategies
are discussed in detail. Introductory chapters covering topics such as validity and reliability furnish readers with a
fi rm understanding of foundational concepts. Chapters dedicated to sampling, interviewing, questionnaire design,
stimulus scaling, observational methods, content analysis, implicit measures, dyadic and group methods, and meta-
analysis provide coverage of these essential methodologies.
The book is noted for its:
• Emphasis on understanding the principles that govern the use of a method to facilitate the researcher’s
choice of the best technique for a given situation.
• Use of the laboratory experiment as a touchstone to describe and evaluate field experiments, correlational
designs, quasi experiments, evaluation studies, and survey designs.
• Coverage of the ethics of social research, including the power a researcher wields and tips on how to use
it responsibly.
The new edition features:
• A new co-author, Andrew Lac, instrumental in fine-tuning the book’s accessible approach and highlighting
the most recent developments at the intersection of design and statistics.
• More learning tools, including more explanation of the basic concepts, more research examples, tables,
and figures, and the addition of boldfaced terms, chapter conclusions, discussion questions, and a glossary.
• Extensive revision of Chapter 3 on measurement reliability theory that examines test theory, latent factors,
factor analysis, and item response theory.
• Expanded coverage of cutting-edge methodologies, including mediation and moderation, reliability and
validity, missing data, and more physiological approaches such as neuroimaging and fMRIs.
• A new web-based resource package that features PowerPoint presentations and discussion and exam ques-
tions for each chapter and, for students, chapter outlines and summaries, key terms, and suggested readings.
Intended as a text for graduate or advanced undergraduate courses in research methods (design) in psychology,
communication, sociology, education, public health, and marketing, an introductory undergraduate course on
research methods is recommended.
William D. Crano is the Oskamp Distinguished Chair and Head of the Department of Psychology at Clare-
mont Graduate University.
Marilynn B. Brewer is Professor Emeritus at The Ohio State University and a Visiting Professor of Psychol-
ogy at the University of New South Wales.
Andrew Lac is Research Professor of Psychology at Claremont Graduate University.
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PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
Third Edition
William D. Crano, Marilynn B. Brewer, and Andrew Lac
Third edition published 2015
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Taylor & Francis
The right of William D. Crano, Marilynn B. Brewer, and Andrew Lac to be identifi ed as the
authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Allyn & Bacon 1986
Second edition published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 2002
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Crano, William D., 1942–
Principles and methods of social research / William D. Crano, Marilynn B. Brewer,
Andrew Lac. — Third edition.
pages cm
1. Social sciences—Research. 2. Social sciences—Methodology. I. Brewer, Marilynn B.,
1942– II. Lac, Andrew. III. Title.
H62.C692 2014
300.72—dc23
2014012586
ISBN: 978-0-415-63855-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-415-63856-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-76831-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
CONTENTS
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xvii
About the Authors xix
PART I
Introduction to Social Research Methods 1
1 Basic Concepts 3
Science and Daily Life 4
Theories and Hypotheses 5
From Theory, Concept, or Idea to Operation 6
Role of Theory in Scientifi c Inquiry 15
Conclusion and Overview 18
Questions for Discussion 19
References 19
2 Internal and External Validity 22
Causation 23
Phases of Research 25
Distinguishing Internal and External Validity 27
Basic Issues of Internal Validity 31
Basic Issues of External Validity 39
Conclusion 41
Questions for Discussion 42
References 43
3 Measurement Reliability 45
Classical Test Theory 45
Contemporary Test Theory 53
Conclusion 61
vi Contents
Questions for Discussion 62
References 62
4 Measurement Validity 64
Types of Measurement Validity 65
Threats to Measurement Validity 74
Conclusion 78
Questions for Discussion 78
References 78
PART II
Research Design Strategies: Experiments,
Quasi-Experiments, and Nonexperiments 81
5 Designing Experiments: Variations on the Basics 83
Basic Variations in Experimental Design 83
Expanding the Number of Experimental Treatments 86
Blocked Designs: Incorporating a Nonexperimental Factor 94
Repeated-Measures Designs and Counterbalancing 96
Conclusion 98
Questions for Discussion 99
References 99
6 Constructing Laboratory Experiments 101
Steps for Constructing an Experiment 101
Types of Experimental Manipulations 104
Manipulation Checks 109
Assignment of Participants to Conditions: Randomization Procedures 110
Realism in an Experiment 111
Social Simulations and Analogue Experiments 112
Conclusion 120
Questions for Discussion 120
References 121
7 External Validity of Laboratory Experiments 125
Generalizability Across Participants 126
Experimenter Expectancy and Bias 131
Three Faces of External Validity 135
Conclusion 138
Questions for Discussion 138
References 139
8 Conducting Experiments Outside the Laboratory 141
Research Settings and Issues of Validity 142
Constructing a Field Experiment 143
The Internet as a Site for Experimental Research 149
Conclusion 155
Questions for Discussion 155
References 156
Contents vii
9 Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Design and Analyses 159
Analyzing and Interpreting Nonexperimental Research 160
Multiple Regression 166
Uses and Misuses of Correlational Analysis 167
Multi-Level Models 170
Structural Equation Models 172
Conclusion 181
Questions for Discussion 182
References 183
10 Quasi-Experiments and Evaluation Research 185
Program Evaluation Research 186
Quasi-Experimental Methods 189
Use of Archival Data in Longitudinal Research 211
Conclusion 213
Questions for Discussion 213
References 213
PART III
Data Collecting Methods 217
11 Survey Studies: Design and Sampling 219
Selection vs. Assignment 219
Random Sampling 224
Nonrandom Sampling 233
More Sampling Issues 236
Types of Survey Studies 241
Missing Data 244
Conclusion 246
Questions for Discussion 246
References 247
12 Systematic Observational Methods 250
Three Aspects of Naturalism 250
Observer Involvement in the Naturalistic Setting: The Participatory–
Nonparticipatory Distinction 253
Coding Observations 260
Conclusion 274
Questions for Discussion 275
References 276
13 Interviewing 280
Modes of Administration: Face-to-Face and Telephone 280
Developing the Interview 281
Interview Structure 286
Conducting the Interview 290
Interviewer Characteristics: Establishing Rapport 293
Group Interviews and Focus Groups 296
Conclusion 298
viii Contents
Questions for Discussion 298
References 299
14 Content Analysis 303
Conducting a Content Analysis 304
Representative Examples 314
Conclusion 319
Questions for Discussion 319
References 320
15 Questionnaire Design and Scale Construction 323
Questionnaires 323
Constructing Rating Scales 326
Conclusion 338
Questions for Discussion 338
References 339
16 Indirect and Implicit Measures of Cognition and Affect 342
Indirect Measures 343
Information Processing: Attention and Memory 344
Priming: Processing Without Awareness or Intent 350
Social Psychophysiology: Physiological Traces of Affect
and Cognitive Processing 358
Conclusion 363
Questions for Discussion 364
References 366
17 Scaling Stimuli: Social Psychophysics 370
Scaling Stimuli 371
Techniques for Stimulus Scaling 372
Multidimensional Scaling Models 377
Conclusion 382
Questions for Discussion 382
References 383
18 Methods for Assessing Dyads and Groups 385
Dyadic Designs 385
Deriving Dyadic and Group Level Variables 387
Designs to Study Group Structures 391
Designs to Study Multiple Groups 396
Measuring Group Process and Outcomes 398
Conclusion 402
Questions for Discussion 402
References 403
Contents ix
PART IV
Concluding Perspectives 407
19 Synthesizing Research Results: Meta-Analysis 409
Stages in the Meta-Analysis Process 411
Interpreting the Meta-Analysis 422
Conclusion 424
Questions for Discussion 424
References 425
20 Social Responsibility and Ethics in Social Research 428
Ethics of Research Practices 428
The Regulatory Context of Research Involving Human Participants 435
Ethics of Data Reporting 438
Ethical Issues Related to the Products of Scientifi c Research 440
Conclusion 441
Questions for Discussion 441
References 442
Glossary 445
Suggested Additional Readings 459
Author Index 467
Subject Index 477
