Principles and Applications of Therapeutic Ultrasound in Healthcare

373 Pages·2015·173.663 MB·\373

by  Yufeng Zhou (Author)

Principles and Applications
of Therapeutic Ultrasound
in Healthcare

Principles and Applications
of Therapeutic Ultrasound
in Healthcare
Yufeng Zhou
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Version Date: 20150512
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Contents
Preface..........................................................................................................................................................................................xi
Author ........................................................................................................................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................1
References ...............................................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 2 Wave Equation .........................................................................................................................................................5
2.1 Fundamental Equations for an Ideal Fluid ...................................................................................................5
2.1.1 Motion Equation ..............................................................................................................................5
2.1.2 Continuity Equation ........................................................................................................................5
2.1.3 Thermodynamic Principle ...............................................................................................................6
2.2 Small-Amplitude 1D Acoustic Wave Equation ............................................................................................7
2.3 Three-Dimensional Wave Equation .............................................................................................................8
2.4 Velocity Potential .........................................................................................................................................8
2.5 Speed of Sound .............................................................................................................................................9
2.6 Acoustic Impedance .....................................................................................................................................9
2.7 Solution of Wave Equation .........................................................................................................................10
2.8 Spherical Waves..........................................................................................................................................11
2.9 Cylindrical Waves ......................................................................................................................................12
2.10 Wave in Solid ..............................................................................................................................................12
Assignment ............................................................................................................................................................15
References .............................................................................................................................................................16
Chapter 3 Sound Reflection, Refraction, and Transmission ..................................................................................................17
3.1 Acoustic Energy and Intensity ....................................................................................................................17
3.2 Sound Pressure and Intensity Level ...........................................................................................................18
3.3 Boundary Conditions ..................................................................................................................................19
3.4 Normal Incidence .......................................................................................................................................20
3.5 Oblique Incidence .......................................................................................................................................21
3.5.1 Complete Transmission .................................................................................................................24
3.5.2 Complete Reflection ......................................................................................................................24
3.5.3 Glancing Incidence ........................................................................................................................24
3.5.4 Perpendicular Transmission ..........................................................................................................24
3.6 Middle-Layer Transmission ........................................................................................................................25
Assignment ............................................................................................................................................................26
References .............................................................................................................................................................27
Chapter 4 Acoustic Field and Wave Radiation ......................................................................................................................29
4.1 Acoustic Interference ..................................................................................................................................29
4.1.1 Superposition Principle .................................................................................................................29
4.1.2 Standing Wave ...............................................................................................................................29
4.1.3 Interference....................................................................................................................................29
4.1.4 Acoustic Waves with Varying Phases ...........................................................................................30
4.2 Acoustic Wave Radiation............................................................................................................................31
4.2.1 Pulsing Spherical Source ..............................................................................................................31
4.2.2 Acoustic Dipole .............................................................................................................................32
4.2.3 Two In-Phase Sources ...................................................................................................................33
v
vi Contents
4.3 Transducer Field .........................................................................................................................................34
4.3.1 Piston on a Rigid Baffle ................................................................................................................34
4.3.1.1 General Acoustic Field ..................................................................................................34
4.3.1.2 Near Field: Fresnel Zone ...............................................................................................36
4.3.1.3 Far Field: Fraunhofer Zone ............................................................................................37
4.3.2 Ring Transducer ............................................................................................................................38
4.3.3 Rectangular Transducer ................................................................................................................38
4.3.4 Focused Transducer .......................................................................................................................39
4.3.5 Line Transducer .............................................................................................................................40
4.4 Array Transducer Field ...............................................................................................................................41
4.4.1 Linear-Array Transducer ...............................................................................................................41
4.4.1.1 General Acoustic Field ..................................................................................................41
4.4.1.2 Grating Lobes ................................................................................................................41
4.4.1.3 Beam Steering ...............................................................................................................42
4.4.2 Annular-Phased Arrays .................................................................................................................43
4.4.2.1 General Acoustic Field ..................................................................................................43
4.4.2.2 Beam Steering ...............................................................................................................43
4.4.2.3 Bessel Beam ...................................................................................................................44
4.4.3 Sector-Vortex Array.......................................................................................................................44
4.4.4 Two-Dimensional Phased Array ...................................................................................................47
Assignment ............................................................................................................................................................47
References .............................................................................................................................................................47
Chapter 5 Acoustical Properties of Biological Tissue ...........................................................................................................51
5.1 Cell and Tissue ...........................................................................................................................................51
5.1.1 Connective Tissue .........................................................................................................................51
5.1.1.1 Loose Connective Tissue ...............................................................................................51
5.1.1.2 Dense Connective Tissue ...............................................................................................51
5.1.1.3 Bone ...............................................................................................................................51
5.1.1.4 Blood ..............................................................................................................................52
5.1.2 Muscular Tissue ............................................................................................................................53
5.1.3 Nervous Tissue ..............................................................................................................................53
5.1.4 Epithelial Tissue ............................................................................................................................54
5.2 Acoustic Attenuation ..................................................................................................................................54
5.3 Wave Equation with Attenuation ................................................................................................................56
5.4 Viscosity Relaxation ...................................................................................................................................57
5.5 Attenuation Measurement ..........................................................................................................................57
5.5.1 Speed of Sound ..............................................................................................................................58
5.5.2 Acoustic Attenuation .....................................................................................................................59
5.5.3 Backscatter Coefficient ..................................................................................................................60
Assignment ............................................................................................................................................................61
References .............................................................................................................................................................61
Chapter 6 Nonlinear Acoustics ..............................................................................................................................................65
6.1 One-Dimensional Nonlinear Dynamic Equation .......................................................................................65
6.2 Nonlinear Equation of State .......................................................................................................................66
6.3 Nonlinearity Parameters .............................................................................................................................66
6.3.1 Acoustic Mach Number .................................................................................................................66
6.3.2 B/A .................................................................................................................................................66
6.3.3 Coefficient of Nonlinearity (β) ......................................................................................................68
6.3.4 Specific Increment of B/A .............................................................................................................68
6.3.5 High-Order Nonlinearity Parameters ...........................................................................................68
6.3.6 Mixture Laws for Nonlinearity Parameters ..................................................................................68
6.4 Nonlinear Acoustic Wave Propagation .......................................................................................................68
6.4.1 Waveform Distortion .....................................................................................................................68
Contents vii
6.4.2 Discontinuity .................................................................................................................................68
6.4.3 Bessel–Fubini Solution ..................................................................................................................69
6.5 Interaction of Finite-Amplitude Sound Waves ...........................................................................................69
6.5.1 Nonlinear Wave Equation .............................................................................................................69
6.5.2 Approximate Solution ...................................................................................................................70
6.5.3 Interaction of Sources at Different Frequencies ............................................................................70
6.6 Propagation of Finite-Amplitude Wave in Viscous Medium .....................................................................71
6.6.1 Burger’s Equation ..........................................................................................................................71
6.6.2 Solution of Burger’s Equation .......................................................................................................72
6.6.3 Westervelt Equation ......................................................................................................................73
6.6.4 Generalized Burger’s Equation .....................................................................................................74
6.6.5 Khokhlov–Zabolotskaya–Kuznetsov (KZK) Equation .................................................................74
6.7 Measurement of Nonlinearity B/A..............................................................................................................75
6.7.1 Finite-Amplitude Method ..............................................................................................................75
6.7.2 Finite-Amplitude Insert-Substitution Method ...............................................................................76
6.7.3 Thermodynamic Method ...............................................................................................................77
6.7.4 Improved Thermodynamic Method ..............................................................................................78
Assignment ............................................................................................................................................................78
References .............................................................................................................................................................78
Chapter 7 Cavitation ..............................................................................................................................................................81
7.1 Nucleation ...................................................................................................................................................81
7.2 Cavitation Threshold ..................................................................................................................................82
7.3 Rectified Diffusion .....................................................................................................................................82
7.4 Bubble Dynamics .......................................................................................................................................84
7.4.1 Stable Cavitation ...........................................................................................................................84
7.4.2 Transient Cavitation ......................................................................................................................85
7.4.3 Bubble Dynamics inside the Tissue ..............................................................................................86
7.4.4 Acoustic Microstreaming ..............................................................................................................86
7.4.5 Acoustic Radiation Force ..............................................................................................................89
7.4.6 Dynamics of Nonspherical Bubbles ..............................................................................................90
7.4.7 Stability of Spherical Growth and Collapse ..................................................................................91
7.4.8 Collapse Close to a Rigid Wall .....................................................................................................91
7.4.9 Sonoluminescence .........................................................................................................................91
7.4.10 Dynamics of Shelled Bubble .........................................................................................................92
7.4.11 Newtonian Interfacial Rheological Model ....................................................................................93
7.4.12 Viscoelastic Interfacial Rheological Model ..................................................................................93
7.5 Cavitation Effects .......................................................................................................................................95
7.5.1 Material Destruction .....................................................................................................................95
7.5.2 Sound Emission .............................................................................................................................95
7.5.3 Chemical Reaction ........................................................................................................................96
7.5.4 Physical Effects .............................................................................................................................96
7.5.5 Bioeffects .......................................................................................................................................96
7.6 Cavitation Measurement .............................................................................................................................96
7.6.1 High-Speed Imaging .....................................................................................................................96
7.6.2 Acoustic Emission .........................................................................................................................97
7.6.3 Sonoluminescence .........................................................................................................................99
7.6.4 Chemical Assessment ..................................................................................................................100
References ............................................................................................................................................................101
Chapter 8 Transducer ...........................................................................................................................................................105
8.1 Piezoelectricity .........................................................................................................................................105
8.2 Equivalent Circuit .....................................................................................................................................109
8.3 Transducer Design .....................................................................................................................................111
viii Contents
8.4 Capacitive Transducer ...............................................................................................................................113
8.5 Transducer Array .......................................................................................................................................114
8.5.1 Pseudo-Inverse Approach .............................................................................................................114
References ............................................................................................................................................................115
Chapter 9 Acoustic Field Calibration and Measurement ......................................................................................................117
9.1 Acoustic Pressure Measurement................................................................................................................117
9.2 Radiation Force Balance ..........................................................................................................................125
9.3 Calorimeter ...............................................................................................................................................127
9.4 Holography ...............................................................................................................................................128
9.5 Interferometric Measurement ...................................................................................................................130
9.6 Field Mapping Using Vibrometer .............................................................................................................130
9.7 Schlieren Imaging .....................................................................................................................................131
9.8 Light Diffraction Tomography .................................................................................................................133
9.9 Light Scanning of Ultrasound Field .........................................................................................................135
9.10 Time-Delay Spectrometry ........................................................................................................................137
9.11 Infrared Thermography ............................................................................................................................139
References ...........................................................................................................................................................142
Chapter 10 Ultrasonic Physiotherapy ....................................................................................................................................145
10.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................145
10.2 S ystem Structure and Treatment Protocol ................................................................................................146
10.3 Mechanisms and Bioeffects ......................................................................................................................148
10.4 Clinical Trials ...........................................................................................................................................149
10.4.1 Pain Relief ...................................................................................................................................150
10.4.2 Wound Healing ............................................................................................................................151
10.4.3 Burn Trauma ...............................................................................................................................154
10.4.4 Tendinosis ....................................................................................................................................155
10.4.5 Osteoarthritis ...............................................................................................................................156
10.4.6 Bone Fracture Healing ................................................................................................................158
10.4.7 Sprained Ankle............................................................................................................................159
10.4.8 Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness .................................................................................................159
10.4.9 Tennis Elbow Syndrome .............................................................................................................160
10.4.10 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome .............................................................................................................161
10.4.11 Ossification ...................................................................................................................................161
10.4.12 Nerve Repair ...............................................................................................................................163
10.4.13 Hand ............................................................................................................................................163
10.5 Discussion .................................................................................................................................................163
References ...........................................................................................................................................................166
Chapter 11 Hyperthermia .......................................................................................................................................................171
11.1 Rationale of Hyperthermia ........................................................................................................................171
11.2 Effect of Thermal Conduction and Blood Perfusion .................................................................................171
11.3 Ultrasound Hyperthermia Technology .....................................................................................................172
11.3.1 Overlapping Transducers ..............................................................................................................173
11.3.2 Focused Transducer ......................................................................................................................174
11.3.3 Phased-Array Transducer .............................................................................................................174
11.3.4 Interstitial Transducer ..................................................................................................................175
11.4 Thermometry .............................................................................................................................................178
11.5 Treatment Planning and Control ..............................................................................................................179
11.6 Ultrasound Hyperthermia-Induced Effects ..............................................................................................182
11.7 Clinical Outcome......................................................................................................................................183
11.8 Combination with Radiation.....................................................................................................................185
Contents ix
11.9 Hyperthermia-Mediated Drug Release ....................................................................................................186
11.10 Future Work ..............................................................................................................................................187
References ...........................................................................................................................................................188
Chapter 12 Shock Wave Lithotripsy and Treatment ..............................................................................................................195
12.1 Kidney Stone Disease and SWL History .................................................................................................195
12.2 Development .............................................................................................................................................198
12.3 Limitations in Renal Injury and Stone Fragmentation .............................................................................200
12.4 Technology and Measurement ..................................................................................................................204
12.5 Mechanisms of SWL: Stone Fragmentation and Renal Injury .................................................................211
12.6 Technical Improvement ............................................................................................................................220
12.7 Shock Wave Therapy ................................................................................................................................226
References ...........................................................................................................................................................232
Chapter 13 High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound ....................................................................................................................245
13.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................245
13.2 History of HIFU .......................................................................................................................................245
13.3 Advantages of HIFU ................................................................................................................................246
13.4 System Structure and Operation ...............................................................................................................246
13.4.1 Extracorporeal Devices ...............................................................................................................247
13.4.2 Transrectal Devices .....................................................................................................................248
13.4.3 Interstitial Devices ......................................................................................................................248
13.5 Mechanism of HIFU ................................................................................................................................249
13.6 HIFU Monitoring and Control .................................................................................................................252
13.7 Clinical Applications ................................................................................................................................255
13.7.1 Prostate Cancer ...........................................................................................................................256
13.7.2 Breast Tumor ...............................................................................................................................259
13.7.3 Uterine Fibroids ...........................................................................................................................263
13.7.4 Liver Tumor .................................................................................................................................266
13.7.5 Renal Tumor ................................................................................................................................269
13.7.6 Pancreatic Cancer ........................................................................................................................271
13.7.7 Bone Tumor .................................................................................................................................274
13.7.8 Brain ............................................................................................................................................276
13.8 Clinical Experience ..................................................................................................................................278
13.9 HIFU-Related Therapeutic Methods ........................................................................................................281
13.9.1 Immune Response .......................................................................................................................281
13.9.2 Vessel Occlusion ..........................................................................................................................282
13.9.3 Hemostasis ...................................................................................................................................285
13.9.4 Histotripsy ...................................................................................................................................288
13.9.5 Denervation .................................................................................................................................289
13.10 Conclusions ...............................................................................................................................................291
References ...........................................................................................................................................................292
Chapter 14 Ultrasound-Mediated Drug Delivery/Gene Transfection ....................................................................................307
14.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................307
14.2 Drug/Gene Delivery Approach ................................................................................................................308
14.2.1 Acoustic Radiation Force ............................................................................................................308
14.2.2 Hyperthermia ..............................................................................................................................308
14.2.3 Bubble Cavitation ........................................................................................................................309
14.3 Acoustically Active Drug Vehicles............................................................................................................310
14.3.1 Microbubbles ................................................................................................................................310
14.3.1.1 Drug-Loaded Microbubbles..........................................................................................311
14.3.1.2 Targeted Microbubbles .................................................................................................311